Ogni volta che vado in Italia, una mia aspirazione è visitare la Sicilia. Attraversare lo stretto sul traghetto e arrivare sull’isola è un’esperienza bellissima, ancora più bella se si viaggia in auto e si visitano diverse città siciliane. Quest’anno in Sicilia ci sono stata due volte, la prima per passare una giornata a Taormina in compagnia di mio fratello e dei miei nipoti; la seconda invece per un obbiettivo culturale più specifico, arrivare a Sant’Agata di Militello, il paese natio di Vincenzo Consolo, considerato uno tra i maggiori narratori italiani contemporanei, e visitare la Casa Letteraria, inaugurata di recente. Volevo vedere di persona la collezione che include le opere dello scrittore, i suoi quadri, i premi ricevuti, e le sue cose personali.
Vincenzo Consolo oltre a scrittore e saggista, aveva lavorato come giornalista, insegnante, e consulente per la Einaudi. Il libro “La mia isola non è Las Vegas” contiene cinquantadue racconti, racconti di viaggio, d’infanzia, incontri con personaggi, e ricordi professionali pubblicati nell’arco di 50 anni su diversi giornali e periodici italiani come: L’Ora di Palermo, l’Unità, Il manifesto, Il Messaggero, La Stampa, Il Corriere della Sera, Giornale di Sicilia, La Sicilia; alcuni di questi quotidiani non esistono più. Leggendo i suoi saggi, i suoi romanzi, e ascoltando le sue video interviste, Consolo descrive “la sua isola” nei minimi dettagli, raccontandone le bellezze e i problemi. A me la Sicilia affascina moltissimo, la trovo veramente bellissima; una terra ricca di civiltà mediterranee, di storia, di cultura, di arte, con un mare da sogno, sole africano, e cibi gustosissimi. Non si finirebbe mai di girarla e di apprezzarne le sue bellezze, la sua storia, e il suo cibo, proprio come scrive Consolo in uno dei racconti di Le pietre di Pantalica, in cui il protagonista si chiede: “Io non so che voglia sia questa, ogni volta che torno in Sicilia, di volerla girare e girare, di percorrere ogni capo della costa, inoltrarmi all’interno, sostare in città e paesi, in villaggi e luoghi sperduti, rivedere vecchie persone, conoscerne nuove. Una voglia, una smania che non mi lascia star fermo in un posto. Non so. Ma sospetto sia questo una sorta di addio, un volerla vedere e toccare prima che uno dei due sparisca”.
Ero in compagnia di mio marito, e quando siamo arrivati al Castello Dei Principi Gallego, nel centro storico della città, tra piazza Francesco Crispi e la storica piazza Vittorio Emanuele ribattezzata Piazza Vincenzo Consolo il 18 febbraio 2017, ci aspettava Claudio Masetta Milone, uno dei fondatori dell’Associazione “amici di Vincenzo Consolo”. Claudio, cortesemente ci ha fatto da guida del castello incominciando da “La casa letteraria di Vincenzo Consolo” dove sono custodite, a disposizione della cittadinanza, le opere dello scrittore e la sua biblioteca personale con oggetti preziosi e premi ricevuti nel corso della sua lunga carriera letteraria. La donazione voluta dalla signora Consolo, include ricordi e ricchezze culturali che Consolo collezionava durante i suoi viaggi, e tra questi ho notato modelli di piccolissimi libretti di ceramica o di ottone, e lumache di ceramica o di ottone (chiocciole, simbolo del castello Gallego e del romanzo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio). Ci sono pezzi antichi che ricordano il lavoro fatto a mano della cultura contadina siciliana, come un telaio per tessere, dei birilli di legno, i suoi libri, i suoi quadri, le onorificenze ricevute da diversi Paesi esteri come la Francia, l’onorificenza del Presidente italiano, la macchina da scrivere che usava per il suo lavoro, e tante altre cose; troppe per essere elencate in questo pezzo, e tutto a disposizione degli studiosi e del pubblico. Ero contentissima di trovarmi li ed emozionata allo steso tempo guardando e toccando le cose personali di Vincenzo Consolo sullo scaffale; tra le sue cose c’era anche L’opera completa di Vincenzo Consolo, opera pubblicata nei Meridiani Mondadori grazie alla cura di Gianni Turchetta.
Nello studio c’erano anche molte foto, ma una foto datata 1968 aveva attratto la mia attenzione, erano fotografati: Consolo insieme allo scrittore Leonardo Sciascia e al poeta Lucio Piccolo nel giardino della villa Piccolo a Capo di Orlando. Mente guardavo la foto ho chiesto al signor Masetta Milone, amico intimo di Consolo e della signora Consolo, quanta importanza dava lo scrittore all’amicizia, Claudio mi rispose con una citazione dal libro La ferita dell’aprile di Vincenzo Consolo: “…E questa amicizia, che quando uno è solo contro tutti, l’altro gli dice ecco qua, siamo in due”. Lucio Piccolo era un poeta e viveva nella villa “Piccolo” a Capo d’Orlando, ma passava molto tempo anche a Palermo. Piccolo era conosciuto come il barone, ed era cugino di Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, autore di un unico ma famosissimo romanzo, Il Gattopardo. Lucio Piccolo era un uomo molto solitario e chiuso in se stesso, amava la solitudine. Consolo da giovane lo andava a trovare spesso alla sua villa a Capo d’Orlando e ci restava per ore a parlare di poesie e di lingua. Per Consolo visitare Piccolo era come andare a lezione, lo stimava molto e lo riteneva un suo maestro.
La laurea “honoris causa” in Filologia Moderna, conferita dall’Università degli Studi di Palermo
Con Leonardo Sciascia Consolo aveva un rapporto diverso da quello con il poeta Lucio Piccolo. Consolo per Sciascia custodiva un’amicizia storica e un gran rispetto, e come Sciacca, egli era motivato a sconfiggere l’ignoranza che alimenta la cultura mafiosa in Sicilia. Leonardo Sciascia viveva a Recalmuto e Consolo doveva prendere il treno da Sant’Agata di Militello per andare a visitarlo, ma di solito lo faceva una volta la settimana. Prima di Sciascia, nessun scrittore aveva scritto di Mafia, egli fu il primo a scriverne nel suo grande successo Il giorno della civetta, terminato nel 1960 e pubblicato nel 1961. Al romanzo si ispirò il film, dello stesso nome, del regista Damiano Damiani uscito nel 1968. Con i suoi romanzi Sciascia dimostrò che l’esistenza pericolosa della Mafia si deve combattere con ogni mezzo disponibile, specialmente scrivendone e diffondendo la cultura e la legalità. Dopo Sciascia Consolo continuò la battaglia contro la Mafia e la criminalità organizzata usando anche lui come arnese la stressa arma, la letteratura. Il signor Masetta Milone, che ha sempre vissuto in Sicilia, dice che la letteratura insieme alla cultura e alla bellezza sono l’arma più potente da usare contro la criminalità organizzata e la Mafia.
Vincenzo Consolo è conosciuto come l’autore della pluralità di lingue e di toni, una caratteristica che afferma la sua identità di scrittore. Lo stile linguistico di Consolo non è dialetto ma nemmeno lingua nazionale. Egli usa vocaboli che esprimono emozioni ma non sono parole dialettali. Il suo stile si allontana dall’italiano comune che egli riteneva troppo tecnico. La pluralità di toni e di lingue comporta anche una pluralità di prospettive, Consolo nei suoi romanzi sceglie di raccontare secondo la prospettiva soggettiva e particolare dei personaggi. Riconoscibile in ogni sua frase è l’utilizzazione di lessici incrociati tra l’italiano antico (la lingua volgare o lingua del popolo) e il siciliano, quindi, la sua è una scrittura che narra una continua ricerca di originalità. Nei suoi romanzi racconta secondo la prospettiva soggettiva di chi è dentro la storia giocando con le parole, come possiamo notare in “Retablo”, nella ode a Rosalia: “Rosalia. Rosa e lia. Rosa che ha inebriato, rosa che ha confuso, rosa che ha sventato, rosa che ha róso, il mio cervello s’è mangiato. Rosa che non è rosa, rosa che è datura, gelsomino, bàlico e viola; rosa che è pomelia, magnolia, zàgara e cardenia. […] Rosa che punto m’ha, ahi!, con la sua spina velenosa in su nel cuore”. In un’intervista curata da Marino Sinibaldi, giornalista, critico letterario, e conduttore radiofonico, Consolo aveva dichiarato: “Fin dal mio primo libro ho cominciato a non scrivere in italiano. Ho voluto creare una lingua che esprimesse una ribellione totale alla storia e ai suoi esiti. Ma non è dialetto. È l’immissione nel codice linguistico nazionale di un materiale che non era registrato, è l’innesto di vocaboli che sono stati espulsi e dimenticati. Io cerco di salvare le parole per salvare i sentimenti che le parole esprimono, per salvare una certa storia”.
Consolo amava la Sicilia, la lingua siciliana, la cultura dell’isola e la lingua italiana, ma era convinto che i giovani a scuola debbano studiare l’italiano e non il dialetto. Nel 2011 egli fu il più critico scrittore contro l’insegnamento del dialetto nelle scuole. Console vedeva la legge che regolava lezioni di dialetto in ogni istituto di ordine e grado come un’iniziativa leghista: “Ormai siamo alla stupidità”, aveva affermato Consolo. “Una bella regressione sulla scia dei ‘lumbard’. Che senso hanno i regionalismi e i localismi in un quadro politico e sociale già abbastanza sfilacciato? Abbiamo una grande lingua, l’italiano, che tra l’altro è nata in Sicilia: perché avvizzirci sui dialetti? Io sono per la lingua italiana, quella che ci hanno insegnato i nostri grandi scrittori, e tutto ciò che tende a sminuirla mi preoccupa”. Consolo usa anche l’arma dell’ironia, ma da quasi tutti i suoi scritti trapela una Sicilia amara per quanto sempre molto amata.
Tornando alla mia visita al Castello dei Principi Gallego, dopo aver ammirato “La casa letteraria di Vincenzo Consolo”, visito il resto del castello con il signor Masetta Milone, un tempo dimora dei Principi Gallego. Risalendo una scala a chiocciola – simbolo del castello e del nome Gallego – si raggiunge il piano superiore dove si trovava la residenza di Principi Gallego: i saloni di ricevimento, i soggiorni, le stanze da letto, il giardino, le cucine e le stanze più riservate del castello. Come ogni residenza nobile, il castello ha pure una cappella, anche questa con dei segreti: i Principi Gallego potevano assistere alle funzioni religiose senza essere visti, affacciandosi da una finestrella comunicante con alcune stanze dell’abitazione. Aprendo la finestrella Claudio dice: “Da questa finestra i principi guardavano se c’erano belle ragazze in chiesa senza che gli altri se ne accorgessero”. L’ingresso della chiesa si trova sulla piazza, e all’interno della cappella si possono ammirare tele, dipinti e statue di legno dei secoli XVIII e XIX. Visibile da lontano, il campanile della chiesa con il grande orologio.
Continuando il giro del castello arrivo sulle terrazze del palazzo: alcuni sono balconi che si affacciano sulle terrazze settentrionali, un tempo armati d’artiglierie per fermare gli attacchi dei pirati che arrivavano via mare. Da ognuna delle terrazze si poteva ammirare un panorama bellissimo e suggestivo del porto di Sant’Agata Di Militello, dove erano ancorate barche a vela e motoscafi. Si avvistava la curva della costa di Cefalù, e la punta di Capo d’ Orlando, e guardando in rettifilo si poteva riconoscere il bellissimo arcipelago delle isole Eolie. “Il castello domina le isole Eolie, dunque da qui il Mandralisca doveva passare navigando per recarsi a Cefalù – ci spiega Claudio Masetta Milone. E nelle prigioni del castello sono stati imprigionati molti rivoluzionari di Alcara Li Fusi. Consolo parla delle prigioni del castello con molta tristezza; attraverso la figura di Mandralisca, nel romanzo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, Consolo si fa portavoce del malessere delle genti siciliane tradite dalle strutture politiche.
Panorama marittimo da uno dei terrazzi del Castello (Foto VNY, F.S)
I Principi Gallego ottennero la signoria della città nel 1573, Vincenzo Gallego e suo figlio Luigi costruirono il castello nel 1663. Il castello fu venduto nel 1820, insieme alle terre, dall’ultimo erede dei Gallego al Principe di Trabia. Nello stesso secolo i privilegi feudali declinarono. Il libro di Vincenzo Consolo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio finisce con una descrizione precisa del castello-carcere di Sant’Agata di Militello, che per la sua forma a chiocciola divenne un simbolo architettonico per anime malvagie: “E siam persuasi che quell’insolito e capriccioso nome chiuso tra le parentesi che vien dopo Girolamo del principe marchese, Còcalo, sicuramente d’accademico versato in cose d’arte o di scienza, sennò sarìa stato eretico per paganità, abbia ispirato l’architetto. Essendo Còcalo il re di Sicilia che accolse Dedalo, il costruttore del Labirinto, dopo la fuga per il cielo da Creta e da Minosse, ed avendo il nome Còcalo dentro la radice l’idea della chiocciola, kokalìas nella lingua greca, còchlea nella latina, enigma soluto, falso labirinto, con inizio e fine, chiara la bocca e scuro il fondo chiuso, la grande entrata da cui si può uscire seguendo la curva sinuosa ma logica, come nella lumaca di Pascal, della sua spirale, l’architetto fece il castello sopra questo nome: approdo dopo il volo fortunoso dal grande labirinto senza scampo della Spagna, segreto sogno di divenire un giorno viceré di Sicilia, sforzo creativo in sfida alla Natura come l’ali di cera dell’inventore greco o solo capricciosa fantasia?” Vincenzo Consolo, Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio.
Come la vita di ogni scrittore, anche quella di Vincenzo Consolo non fu facile. Terminate le scuole superiori si iscrisse alla facoltà di Giurisprudenza, dell’Università Cattolica di Milano. Consolo decise di fare l’università a Milano perché c’erano Vittorini, Quasimodo, e c’era stato Verga. Però, per far contenti i suoi genitori egli si iscrisse alla facoltà di giurisprudenza e non a quella di lettere; la sua famiglia considerava l’insegnamento un lavoro da donne e non da uomini. Durante il tempo in cui si trovava a Milano fu costretto ad interrompere gli studi per far fronte alla leva obbligatoria, e in seguito si laureò in Giurisprudenza con una tesi in filosofia del diritto dall’Università di Messina, e ritornò a vivere in Sicilia dove si dedicò all’insegnamento nelle scuole agrarie. Nel 1963 debuttò con il suo primo romanzo, La ferita dell’aprile, una narrazione della vita di un paese siciliano straziato dalle lotte politiche del dopoguerra. Nel 1968, dopo aver vinto un concorso alla Rai, si trasferisce a Milano, dove vivrà e lavorerà fino alla sua morte svolgendo un’intensa attività giornalistica ed editoriale, e alternando alla vita milanese con lunghi soggiorni nel paese d’origine. Nel 2007 ricevette la laurea “honoris causa” in Filologia moderna dall’Università di Palermo.
Tra le opere di Vincenzo Consolo riordiamo: La ferita dell’aprile (1963), Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio (1976, la sua opera più celebre), Retablo (1987, premio Grinzane), Le pietre di Pantalica (1988), Nottetempo, casa per casa (1992, premio Strega), L’olivo e l’olivastro (1994), Lo spasimo di Palermo (1998). Lunaria (1985, dialogo fiabesco di sapore leopardiano). Consolo ha scritto anche per il teatro (Catarsi, 1989) ed è stato autore di saggi dedicati alla sua terra, la Sicilia: La pesca del tonno in Sicilia (1986), Il Barocco in Sicilia (1991), Vedute dallo stretto di Messina (1993).
Concludo con una citazione di Vincenzo Consolo, tratta da una video intervista: “Perché molti siciliani scriviamo? Noi scrittori siciliani non è che non sapevamo che fare, ma abbiamo sentito il bisogno di spiegarci, di capire le ragioni di tanto malessere di quest’isola. Da sempre un’isola che potrebbe essere veramente un isola felice, l’Isola dei Feaci, perché abbiamo tutto; abbiamo la terra, le antichità. Eppure, per i mal Governi che si sono succeduti da sempre quest’isola e diventata un’isola maledetta, un’isola infelice”.
Sesto di otto figli, nacque a Sant’Agata di Militello (Messina) il 18 febbraio 1933, da Calogero (1898-1962) e Maria Giallombardo (1900-88).
Il padre, commerciante alimentare e poi piccolo imprenditore con la nascita della ditta ‘Fratelli Consolo Cereali’ nel 1939, trasmise al figlio i tratti di un’etica rigorosa, dimostrata anche contro la mafia, la quale nell’immediato dopoguerra veniva organizzando in tutta la Sicilia il controllo delle attività economiche.
Anche evocando il celebre testo di Luigi Pirandello sulla propria nascita nella contrada del Caos, Consolo ricordò i luoghi d’infanzia, le sue origini e la sua prima educazione nel romanzo d’esordio, La ferita dell’aprile (Milano 1963), dedicato «con pudore» a suo padre, scomparso proprio in quell’anno.
Iniziava una progressiva centralità della Sicilia nella sua personalità di uomo e di scrittore, di intellettuale al bivio tra saggistica e letteratura, in una contaminazione di ‘generi’ che ha sempre distinto le sue pagine e che trova in Leonardo Sciascia, maestro dell’ibridismo, un decisivo modello.
La sua terra di origine si rivela come presenza «ossessiva», con un forte valore identitario, storico ma anche simbolico, che segna in parte il destino di uno scrittore «anfibio», tra terra e mare, tra passato e presente. Sicilia come luogo, tema, personaggio, persino struttura narrativa; quasi ad annodare, in una profonda corrispondenza e circolarità, i fili dell’amplissimo e diversificato corpus letterario dello scrittore, da La ferita dell’aprile al postumo La mia isola è Las Vegas: «tutti i romanzi, se ordinati in base alla cronologia dei fatti descritti o allusi, compongono, per momenti decisivi, una storia della Sicilia degli ultimi duecentocinquant’anni» (C. Segre, Un profilo di V. C., in V. Consolo, L’opera completa, a cura di G. Turchetta, Milano, 2015, p. XIV). Questa sicilianità «ostinata» e «implacabile» (v. G. Turchetta, Da un luogo bellissimo e tremendo, ibid., pp. XXV-LXXIV, con partic. riferimento a p. XXV) emerge spesso nella declinazione, tematica e metaforica, del viaggio, che è spostamento fisico ma anche attraversamento di tempi e luoghi, sfida all’ignoto e continua tensione verso un altrove; nella duplice direzione della partenza e del nostos che richiama il grande archetipo omerico, l’Odissea, il «poema in cui per la prima volta si apre davanti ai nostri occhi lo spazio mediterraneo» (Lo spazio in letteratura, in Di qua dal faro, poi in L’opera completa, cit., p. 1239). Eppure, «nella modernità, le colpe non sono più soggettive, ma oggettive, sono della storia. I mostri non sorgono più dal mare, dalla profondità del subconscio, ma sono mostri concreti, reali, che tutti noi abbiamo creato […] Itaca non è più raggiungibile. Questo, secondo me, lo scrittore oggi ha il compito di dire, di narrare» (in V. Consolo – M. Nicolao, Il viaggio di Odisseo, introd. di M. Corti, Milano 1999, p. 22). Nel tragico confronto tra passato mitico e desolato presente, la sua terra gli appare aver perso tutti i connotati di un approdo. Si ripropone la sofferta diaspora, e il doloroso ritorno, degli scrittori meridionali; la «dolorosa saggezza» e la «disperata intelligenza» di cui Consolo ragiona ne Le pietre di Pantalica, come declinazione personale del paradigma della «intelligenza siciliana» di Vitaliano Brancati. Non è un caso se nel laboratorio della scrittura, oltre alla lezione di Italo Calvino o Cesare Pavese, affiora il realismo lirico-fantastico di Elio Vittorini o la prosa di cose di Giovanni Verga, Federico De Roberto, ma anche Pirandello.
Gli anni della guerra per il giovanissimo Vincenzo trascorsero relativamente tranquilli fino al 1943, quando gli americani, in preparazione dello sbarco, diedero avvio a massicci bombardamenti che coinvolsero la zona di Sant’Agata, sulla linea strategica Messina-Palermo, e che costrinsero la famiglia Consolo a ‘sfollare’ in campagna, nella contrada di Vallebruca. Dopo le scuole medie all’istituto salesiano Guglielmo Marconi, l’assenza di scuole pubbliche di grado secondario lo condusse nel 1947 al primo allontanamento da casa, per frequentare il liceo-ginnasio salesiano Luigi Valli a Barcellona Pozzo di Gotto, a ottanta chilometri da Sant’Agata. Era già chiara la sua passione per la lettura. Nelle pause scolastiche approfittava di un cugino del padre, Peppino Consolo, che possedeva una pur scarna biblioteca con alcuni classici della letteratura, da Manzoni a Hugo o Balzac, ai romanzieri russi.
Negli anni liceali si collocano i primi esercizi di scrittura, anche su suggestione di due letture che si rivelarono decisive: Conversazione in Sicilia di Elio Vittorini e Cristo si è fermato a Eboli di Carlo Levi. Iniziava allora una lunga ricerca sulle lingue, anche antiche. La sperimentazione di nuovi codici, registri e linguaggi si veniva costituendo in una «ideologia» precisa e insieme fluida e mai conclusa, tradotta in racconto con I linguaggi del bosco (in Le pietre di Pantalica, poi in L’opera completa, cit., pp. 606-612).
Nell’autunno del 1952 giunse il primo trasferimento, «traumatico», a Milano, per frequentare la facoltà di giurisprudenza dell’Università Cattolica. Fu in quei primi anni universitari che conobbe Basilio Reale, l’amico Silo che lo introdusse alla casa editrice Mondadori (cfr. Sirene siciliane, Palermo 1986; poi in Di qua dal faro, cit.), e Lucio Piccolo, il «barone magico» delle Pietre di Pantalica: «grande poeta di sconfinata cultura, cugino e antagonista di Tomasi di Lampedusa. Fu lui a insegnarmi la vera letteratura, la poesia e, insieme, a farmi amare certi libri di erudizione provinciale, ottocentesca, storie, guide, cataloghi, ‘pieni di insospettabile poesia’ diceva, che furono miniere lessicali per me» (Fuga dall’Etna, Roma 1993, p. 18).
Costretto a interrompere gli studi per assolvere gli obblighi del servizio militare (dapprima a Orvieto e poi a Roma), riprese il percorso universitario nel 1957, stavolta a Messina, per laurearsi quindi nel 1960 discutendo una tesi in filosofia del diritto dal titolo «La crisi attuale di diritti della persona umana».
I PRIMI GRANDI ROMANZI
Il primo testo a stampa risale al 1957, Un sacco di magnolie, apparso a firma «Enzo Consolo» nella rivista La parrucca (poi in La mia isola è Las Vegas, a cura di N. Messina, Milano 2012, pp. 8-10) che vantava collaboratori come Umberto Eco, Giorgio Manganelli o Edoardo Sanguineti. Il suo esordio come romanziere è invece La ferita dell’aprile (cit.) che, dopo lunga gestazione, apparve nel 1963 per Mondadori nella collana «Il Tornasole» di Niccolò Gallo e Vittorio Sereni, con l’assistenza redazionale di Raffaele Crovi: «Mi sono ritrovato fatalmente nel solco sperimentale di Gadda e Pasolini, di D’Arrigo e Mastronardi, anche. Non era ancora apparso all’orizzonte il Gruppo ’63, dal quale in ogni caso mi avrebbe tenuto ben lontano un forte senso di appartenenza alla tradizione letteraria» (Fuga dall’Etna, cit., p. 15). Forse anche per quella coincidenza cronologica con le spinte avanguardistiche, il romanzo quasi sfuggì all’attenzione di critica e di lettori. Suscitò invece l’interesse di Sciascia, al quale Consolo aveva inviato il libro allegando una lettera nella quale gli dichiarava il suo debito come scrittore. Era l’inizio di una salda e duratura amicizia, alla quale Consolo dedicò numerose pagine, molte delle quali raccolte nella sezione Intorno a Leonardo Sciascia del volume Di qua dal faro (cit., pp. 1161-1184).
La ferita dell’aprile, «poemetto narrativo» da leggersi anche come Bildungsroman autobiografico, costituisce un unicum nella carriera dello scrittore. Nel racconto della vita di un paese siciliano e delle lotte politiche del dopoguerra, la narrazione in prima persona (di cui Consolo non usufruì nei romanzi successivi) è impostata cronologicamente come diario di un anno scolastico e mette in scena i turbamenti dell’uscita dall’infanzia, nell’intreccio tra vicende personali dei protagonisti e storia d’Italia.
Sin dall’esordio emerge con forza, nella scrittura, quella centralità della parola che ha connotato fortemente l’intera sua produzione, fino a consacrarlo come ‘autore difficile’, ‘enigmatico’: «Mi ponevo […] sul crinale della sperimentazione, mettendo in campo una scrittura fortemente segnata dall’impasto linguistico» (in Adamo, 2006, p. 183).
L’attento lettore e saggista seguiva da vicino il dibattito sulla letteratura contemporanea. A segnare profondamente quella stagione fu anche la pubblicazione in Rinascita, del noto saggio di Pasolini, Nuove questioni linguistiche, apparso nel dicembre 1964, alla vigilia della pubblicazione del primo capitolo del Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, e anche della stesura di Il pane (1964), dei racconti Grandine come neve, Befana di novembre (1965) e Triangolo e Luna (1966), poi inclusi in La mia isola è Las Vegas (cit.).
Nel 1964 prese a scrivere per L’Ora di Palermo, giornale allora diretto da Vittorio Nisticò; era l’inizio di una lunga collaborazione che lo impegnò fino al 1975 e poi ancora dal 1977 al 1991, e che vide Consolo anche titolare di una rubrica di successo, «Fuori casa», inaugurata nel dicembre 1968. Nel racconto Per un po’ d’erba ai margini del feudo (in L’Ora, 16 aprile 1966, poi incluso da Sciascia nell’antologia Narratori siciliani curata per Mursia insieme con Salvatore Guglielmino), forte anche della lettura del fortunato saggio di Hans Magnus Enzensberger Letteratura come storiografia (in Il Menabò, 1966, n. 9), inaugurava un nuovo modo narrativo, fondato sull’intreccio tra fiction e storia, racconto e documenti, che avrebbe poi preso corpo nel suo maggiore romanzo.
Nello stesso 1966 si collocano per Consolo viaggi significativi: uno nella valle del Belice, che torna nel racconto del 1984, Il drappo rosso con le spighe d’oro, e la trasferta a Parigi con Sciascia, il quale nello stesso 1966 aveva dato vita al premio Brancati di Zafferana Etnea coinvolgendo, oltre ad Alberto Moravia, Dacia Maraini e Pier Paolo Pasolini, anche i siciliani Ignazio Buttitta, Lucio Piccolo e naturalmente Consolo.
Nel 1967, l’anno nel quale Pasolini pubblicava in Nuovi Argomenti la prosa poetica di Lucio Piccolo L’esequie della luna da cui nacque lo spunto per Lunaria, Consolo vinse un concorso per la RAI. Interruppe quindi l’insegnamento nelle scuole secondarie di secondo grado e, nel gennaio 1968, prese servizio presso la sede di Milano. Era un trasferimento destinato a essere definitivo, che segnò la vita e l’opera dello scrittore. Ad accoglierlo in azienda fu, tra gli altri, Caterina Pilenga, che aveva apprezzato il suo poco noto romanzo La ferita dell’aprile e che divenne compagna della vita, e moglie con rito civile dal 1986.
Quel trasferimento, in quel «momento di acuta storia», per l’acceso dibattito politico e culturale e per il duro conflitto sociale, fu una decisiva cesura, uno snodo sul quale spesso Consolo avrebbe riflettuto, non senza ripensamenti. Era una declinazione tragica del tema del contrasto di dimensione spazio-temporale, la sua protesta contro luoghi e tempi rispetto ai quali si sarebbe spesso sentito estraneo: la Milano di allora, l’«attiva, mercatora» città, e in particolare la RAI, «completamente ipotecata dal potere politico, dalla mafia partitica».
Pur mai rinunciando al suo carattere anarcoide, che lo portò non di rado ad aperte contestazioni, quella del servizio pubblico televisivo fu in effetti una postazione privilegiata per penetrare il paesaggio della letteratura contemporanea che Consolo lettore e critico ben conosceva; in una posizione insieme scomoda ma anche centrale di giornalista, che rivive nel personaggio Antonio Crisafi del racconto La pallottola in testa (poi in La mia isola è Las Vegas, cit., pp. 157-162).
Stabilitosi a Milano, Consolo prese a frequentare la casa sui Navigli della compagna di Vittorini, Ginetta Varisco, un cenacolo culturale animato tra gli altri da Carlo Bo, Italo Calvino, Paolo Volponi e Salvatore Quasimodo. Intanto lesse, destinati a incidere il suo percorso di scrittura, Manifesto per un nuovo teatro di Pasolini, pubblicato in Nuovi Argomenti, e Appunti sulla narrativa come processo combinatorio di Calvino, apparso in ‘Nuova Corrente’.
In quel ‘caldo’ 1968 aveva anche inviato a Paragone, la rivista diretta da Roberto Longhi e Anna Banti, un racconto intitolato Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio: si trattava del primo capitolo del futuro capolavoro, che tuttavia non venne accolto dalla rivista e apparve in Nuovi Argomenti, per volontà di Enzo Siciliano, nell’ultimo numero della stessa annata.
Nel 1975, dopo il rallentamento subìto negli anni precedenti, l’attività giornalistica s’intensificò. Nell’autunno del 1976 Consolo iniziò a collaborare anche con La Stampa e Il Corriere di Sicilia; dal dicembre 1977 con il Corriere della sera e, dal 1980, col Messaggero. Era un lavoro che non solo non si interruppe ma che, attraverso l’impegno profuso in numerosi quotidiani e periodici, anche stranieri, si prospettò infine come possibile impegno esclusivo: «Ho cercato di lasciare Milano nel 1975, perché non volevo più scrivere, non volevo più fare lo scrittore […]. Mi sono detto ‘farò il giornalista a vita’, perché mi sembra importante fare il giornalista, soprattutto in una città di frontiera com’era Palermo a quell’epoca» (in Pintor, 2006, p. 252).
Era la vigilia dell’uscita del romanzo, che avrebbe fatto conoscere Consolo al grande pubblico. Nell’autunno del 1975, infatti, all’insaputa dell’autore, apparve l’edizione Manusè del Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, per interessamento della compagna Caterina e di Sciascia, con un’acquaforte di Renato Guttuso. Dopo diverse proposte editoriali, e con un crescente interesse di pubblico e di critica, il romanzo apparve in versione definitiva nel 1979 per Einaudi, la casa editrice con la quale collaborava dal 1976 su proposta dell’amica Elsa Morante e dello stesso Giulio Einaudi; mentre già si diffondevano le traduzioni e mentre la RAI commissionò un progetto (mai realizzato) di sceneggiatura allo stesso Consolo e al regista Salvatore Maira.
Il romanzo richiama nel titolo il sorriso enigmatico raffigurato nel Ritratto di ignoto di Antonello da Messina. L’intreccio prende corpo intorno a tre elementi, che si fanno nuclei narrativi: il fascino esercitato dalla preziosa tavoletta pittorica ammirata già nell’estate del 1949 presso la Casa-museo Mandralisca; l’interesse per la storia della rivolta contadina di Alcàra Li Fusi, innescata dall’arrivo di Garibaldi; l’inchiesta sui cavatori di pietra pomice delle isole Eolie ammalati di silicosi. Ne vien fuori una complessa architettura narrativa, più volte letta come anti-Gattopardo; pur con moduli espressivi e pur da postazioni ideologiche e artistiche molto differenti, al centro di entrambi i romanzi è la Sicilia percorsa dai moti risorgimentali, liberata (o occupata) dai Mille. In tale prospettiva, Il sorriso può intendersi come epigono della tradizione del racconto storico siciliano per ridisegnare l’epopea risorgimentale sullo sfondo del quadro storico-sociale negli anni dello sbarco garibaldino: una tradizione «sempre critica, antirisorgimentale», che da Verga, attraverso De Roberto e Pirandello, arrivava a Sciascia e Tomasi di Lampedusa. La complessità strutturale e stilistica giustifica la lunga gestazione del testo. La trasposizione del tempo storico all’immediato presente, la riflessione sulla lingua e la stessa tessitura linguistica, impastata di dialetti e gerghi tecnici, sembrano confermare la natura più autentica della narrativa di un autore che, sul modello di Zola, «abdica, per così dire, alla sua condizione di letterato per divenire intellettuale, ‘politico’» (Letteratura e potere, [1979], in Di qua dal faro, cit., p. 1168); la decisione di «non scrivere in italiano» era una forma di «ribellione alle norme» e alla storia, una «uccisione del padre» (in Sinibaldi, 1988, p. 12).
Nella contaminazione tra inserti documentari e narrazioni d’autore, in una costante sovrascrittura per la quale è stata richiamata la tecnica chirurgica del «trapianto» (O’ Connell, 2008, p. 165), il romanzo evoca le sperimentazioni novecentesche, il pastiche gaddiano o lo sperimentalismo pasoliniano, pur con una declinazione personalissima, a tratti neobarocca; in una raffinatezza strutturale, di carattere anche simbolico, che si rivela in una «costruzione a chiocciola», concentrica e labirintica, sulla quale ha insistito un fortunato saggio di Cesare Segre (Segre, 1987). A sostenere questo complesso impianto è, però, anche la grande tradizione del romanzo storico, e naturalmente il suo primo modello, il Manzoni dei Promessi sposi e della Storia della colonna infame.
Continuava intanto l’attività di scrittura come protesta e insieme documento, in quei caldi ‘anni di piombo’, di attentati e inchieste, che Consolo tradusse anche in racconto nel riuscito Un giorno come gli altri (1981) inserito poi da Enzo Siciliano nel «Meridiano» dei Racconti italiani del Novecento.
GLI ANNI OTTANTA E IL DITTICO BAROCCO DI LUNARIA E RETABLO
Anche sull’onda del successo del Sorriso, negli anni Ottanta Consolo intensificò l’attività di scrittura nella ricerca di nuove forme espressive, come mostra l’ampio ventaglio di progetti ai quali lavorò: un singolare romanzo giallo, Morte del giardiniere (1981); un libro saggistico sul Movimento indipendentista siciliano (1981); l’ipotesi di una sceneggiatura sulla vita di Giovanni Pascoli, alla quale si dedicò a Roma nel 1982 con Vincenzo Cerami per un film che avrebbe dovuto esser realizzato da Marco Bellocchio; il progetto di una inchiesta su una vicenda criminale degli anni Cinquanta (i frati estorsori di Mazzarino, primo nucleo narrativo di Le pietre di Pantalica); la traduzione, insieme con Dario Del Corno, di Ifigenia fra i Tauri di Euripide, che andò in scena nel 1982 al Teatro antico di Siracusa.
Nel novembre 1983 discusse con l’allora giovanissimo regista Roberto Andò il progetto di un testo teatrale tratto dal citato poemetto in prosa di Lucio Piccolo, Le esequie della luna; ne nacque invece Lunaria, favola teatrale ambientata nella Palermo settecentesca che apparve nei «Nuovi Coralli» di Einaudi (Torino 1985) e che gli valse il premio Pirandello.
La scrittura degli anni Ottanta sembra, almeno in parte, allontanarsi dalle ardite sperimentazioni formali e linguistiche del Sorriso. Tanto Lunaria (cit.) quanto Retablo (Palermo, 1987) sembrano aprirsi a forme più distese, costruite su vicende ambientate in un Settecento colmo di riferimenti storici e insieme estraneo a documentazioni rigorose, con una libertà di invenzione che mancava alle opere precedenti.
Nella profonda tensione etica, la scrittura si sarebbe liberata dallo scavo della realtà autobiografica e storica proprio con Lunaria, che può anche leggersi come semplice allegoria della solitudine dello scrittore. Nella Palermo settecentesca si muove il malinconico Viceré Casimiro, che sogna la caduta della luna, turbato da fantasmi di una diversa realtà, in una visione che si fa presagio che s’invera. Con un’apertura della prosa verso la poesia, quella poesia alla quale pure Consolo si dedicò (Accordi. Poesie inedite di V.C., a cura di F. Zuccarello – C. Massetta Milone, S. Agata di Militello 2015), ‘Lunaria’ vira decisamente in direzione del fantastico, ma anche del conte philosophique, che però attinge alla fortunata tradizione popolare del cuntu, come anche alle suggestioni del teatro barocco, Calderón de la Barca in testa (cfr. Di Legami, 1990, p. 28). Nel giugno 1986 l’opera andò per la prima volta in scena, a Roma, con la Cooperativa Quarta espressione, costituita da giovani diplomati dell’Accademia drammatica Silvio d’Amico.
Si moltiplicava, intanto, la rete di relazioni significative (da José Saramago ad Alberto Moravia), mentre proseguiva con Sciascia una salda amicizia, che lo spinse a pubblicare un articolo (Difficile mestiere scrivere da uomo libero, in Il Messaggero, 27 gennaio 1987), in difesa dello scrittore di Racalmuto travolto dalle polemiche suscitate da I professionisti dell’antimafia, apparso nel Corriere della sera il 10 gennaio 1987.
In seguito all’insistente invito di Elvira Sellerio, nell’estate del 1987 Consolo raggiunse Palermo per lavorare a Retablo, che apparve (dopo l’anticipazione di alcuni capitoli in la Repubblica) nell’ottobre 1987, con cinque disegni di Fabrizio Clerici. Retablo riscosse grande successo di pubblico e gli valse il premio Grinzane Cavour e il premio Racalmare. Nel 1997 Sebastiano Romano ne realizzò una lettura scenica a Milano, nella chiesa sconsacrata di San Paolo Converso, per la regia di Richi Ferrero e dello stesso Romano. Una versione teatrale, scritta da Ugo Ronfani, andò in scena nel 2001 al teatro stabile di Catania e poi a Milano.
L’opera segna per molti aspetti uno snodo all’interno della produzione di Consolo che, sensibile agli esiti della narrativa italiana e straniera (da Calvino a Manganelli, da Perec a Borges), pone al centro della narrazione romanzesca una stringente interrogazione sulla scrittura. Nella reiterata sovrapposizione tra storia e invenzione, persone e personaggi, Retablo, che richiama l’arte pittorica sin dal titolo, segue le vicende di un intellettuale e artista in fuga da Milano verso la Sicilia alla ricerca della matrice culturale e umana della donna che ama, Teresa Blasco (nella storia, la madre di Giulia Beccaria). Intorno al protagonista-pittore si dipana un intreccio tra letteratura e arti visive, ormai divenuto centrale nella scrittura di Consolo (Cuevas, Ut pictura: el imaginario iconografico en la obra de V. C., in Cuevas, 2005, pp. 63-77); fino a una immaginazione visiva che punta sulla centralità dei luoghi, in una personale geografia esistenziale. Retablo infatti è costruito sul modello odeporico, che richiama, per rinnovarla, la tradizione dei racconti del Grand Tour oltre che del modello classico del nostos, che utilizzò poi anche nelle narrazioni successive, nella opposizione geostorica Milano-Sicilia.
Il 1989 segnò per Consolo il ritorno alla forma tragica, con un testo redatto insieme con gli amici Gesualdo Bufalino e Leonardo Sciascia, Trittico appunto, andato in scena al teatro stabile di Catania il 3 novembre 1989 per la regia di Antonio Calenda (poi in volume, Catania 1989). L’atto unico di Consolo, Catarsi, si accompagnava a La panchina di Bufalino e a Quando non arrivarono i nostri, rielaborazione drammaturgica di una novella di Sciascia.
LA TRILOGIA DEGLI ANNI NOVANTA
La sincera passione civile, declinata spesso nel segno della protesta, non si tradusse mai nella partecipazione attiva alla politica – nonostante i ripetuti inviti a una sua candidatura avanzati dal Partito comunista italiano (PCI) di Achille Occhetto – ma certo animò la sua scrittura, nella battaglia ingaggiata tra le parole e le cose. All’indomani dell’assassinio del giudice Rosario Livatino, il 21 settembre 1990, in un acceso clima di rivendicazioni e polemiche, decise di dimettersi dalla giuria del premio Racalmare, che intanto era stato intitolato a Sciascia, scomparso l’anno precedente.
È nel segno di questa protesta che si inserisce anche lo studio e il racconto della Sicilia, che Consolo continuava a osservare e denunciare: l’isola tra mito e storia, la terra dalla quale idealmente non riuscì mai a separarsi, sul piano intellettuale e artistico, eppure nella quale non tornò mai a vivere. È in questa prospettiva che può leggersi quella che sembra configurarsi quasi come trilogia: Nottetempo, casa per casa (Milano 1992), L’olivo e l’olivastro (ibid. 1994) e Lo spasimo di Palermo (ibid. 1998), sotto il segno del definitivo tramonto dell’utopia, nell’accentuazione di una dimensione simbolica della storia e della realtà.
Dopo una serie di ritratti di scrittori lombardi realizzati in RAI nel 1991 con il titolo Tracciati (Piero Chiara, Carlo Emilio Gadda, Lucio Mastronardi, Ada Negri, Vittorio Sereni, Delio Tessa e Giovanni Testori), nel 1992 Nottetempo, casa per casa (cit.), che fu insignito con il Premio Strega, rappresentò un ritorno al romanzo storico, come già forse, in parte, Le pietre di Pantalica (Milano 1988), stratificato e multigenere, la cui struttura tripartita (Teatro, Persone, Eventi) rimandava ancora una volta al teatro.
Al progetto narrativo di Nottetempo Consolo lavorava almeno dalla fine degli anni Sessanta, quando aveva cominciato a raccogliere materiali e documenti sul risorgimento in Sicilia, sulla strage di Alcàra Li Fusi e sulla Cefalù degli anni Venti alle prese con il controverso caso del “santone” Aleister Crowley. L’opera sembra segnare il secondo tempo di una ideale lunga storia della Sicilia, una fase successiva al Risorgimento del Sorriso e precedente agli anni Novanta di Lo spasimo di Palermo (1998). «In Nottetempo ho voluto far vedere come il fascismo fosse figlio della follia, la follia privata del protagonista e quella pubblica della Storia, il ricorso al satanismo che voleva distruggere il cristianesimo di una società malata: tutti segni oscuri e premonitori, come quelli che vediamo oggi con il ritorno a queste ridicole forme di esorcismo, questi fondamentalismi, questi revanscismi» (in Parazzoli, 1998, p. 28).
Continuava la sua forte militanza civile: le proteste contro l’elezione di Formentini a sindaco di Milano, o le dimissioni, all’indomani della nomina, il 10 settembre 1993, dalla carica di presidente del consiglio di amministrazione del teatro stabile di Palermo, in polemica con il direttore artistico Pietro Carriglio, ritenuto «intellettuale organico alla DC di Salvo Lima».
Questa forte militanza proseguì con maggiore libertà dopo il suo collocamento in pensione dalla RAI, nel 1993. In seguito alla vittoria di Silvio Berlusconi alle elezioni politiche, Consolo aderì al Forum Manifesto democratico 1994, promosso da Cesare Segre, Raffaele Fiengo e Corrado Stajano. Intanto, il 25 giugno di quell’anno partecipò a un dibattito coordinato da Renato Nisticò da cui sarebbe nato il testo Fuga dall’Etna (cit.), nuova testimonianza di una sicilianità che trovò riconoscimento anche nella cittadinanza onoraria di Cefalù, cui seguì, nel 1996, la stessa onorificenza da parte del Comune di Santo Stefano di Camastra. Ed è sempre la Sicilia al centro del volume del 1994, L’olivo e l’olivastro, che nel consueto superamento dei confini di ‘generi’ compiuto da Consolo, nell’intreccio tra poesia e prosa, narrazione e saggismo, che per alcuni richiama l’Horcynus Orca di Stefano D’Arrigo, si presenta come graffiante narrazione di viaggio. Il doloroso ritorno di Odisseo-Consolo verso l’Itaca-Sicilia è «un viaggio in verticale, una discesa negli abissi». Come Retablo, anche L’olivo e l’olivastro conduce il lettore attraverso la Sicilia di un presente degradato, che si confronta con il passato mitico.
Nel dicembre dello stesso 1994 ricevette per il complesso della sua opera narrativa e saggistica il premio internazionale Unione Latina da una giuria composta, tra gli altri, da José Saramago, Jorge Amado, Luigi Malerba.
In questi anni Novanta la presenza internazionale di Consolo si andò rafforzando. Nel 1995, su invito dell’allora presidente Salman Rushdie, divenne membro del Parlament international des écrivains (PIE) di Strasburgo. Tra dicembre 1995 e gennaio 1996 a Parigi andò in scena La crèche de Sicile, rappresentato anche a Palermo l’anno dopo. Il 15 febbraio 1996 il ministro della Cultura francese Philippe Douste-Blazy lo nominò chevalier dans l’Ordre des Arts et des lettres. Ormai anche socio onorario dell’Accademia di Brera, nel 1996 fu inoltre in Argentina con una delegazione di scrittori italiani, su invito dell’Università di Buenos Aires; seguirono quindi viaggi a Strasburgo, Santiago del Cile e nella Bosnia-Erzegovina della guerra.
Alla Sicilia continuano a essere dedicate anche le sue opere mature. Il 19 giugno 1998 venne eseguita al teatro Verdi di Firenze, l’Ape iblea. Elegia per Noto, musicata da Francesco Pennisi (poi, insieme con Catarsi, raccolto nel volume Oratorio, Lecce 2002). Pochi mesi dopo apparve il suo ultimo romanzo, Lo spasimo di Palermo (Milano 1998) che, riprendendo elementi de La ferita dell’aprile, segna come un ritorno all’autobiografismo. La vicenda si svolge nell’anno delle stragi di Capaci e via D’Amelio, i tragici fatti del 1992 ai quali Consolo aveva già dedicato un testo-adattamento della Messa di requiem di Verdi: Dies irae. Requiem da questa Palermo (poi Requiem per le vittime della mafia), eseguita con musiche di vari artisti nella Cattedrale di Palermo il 27 marzo 1993. La vicenda del protagonista-scrittore Gioacchino Martinez e del suo nostos ai luoghi dell’infanzia e giovinezza riscosse grande successo di pubblico e di critica (premio Monreale per la narrativa nel 1998; nonché, l’anno successivo, insignito con il premio Flaiano e il premio Brancati).
La Sicilia è ancora protagonista dell’ampia raccolta di saggi per la quale ipotizzava il titolo Pane di zolfo o Per nascente solfo, che apparve invece con il titolo Di qua dal faro (Milano 1999; premio Nino Martoglio e premio Feronia). Ed è ancora alla cultura popolare isolana che si consacra una sua riscrittura delle Fiabe siciliane raccolte nel 1868-69 dall’etnologa siculo-svizzera Laura Gonzenbach (Roma 1999).
IL SILENZIO DELLO SCRITTORE
Gli ultimi anni di vita sono segnati per Consolo da una dolorosa afasia artistica, che si manifesta come ulteriore declinazione dell’impegno, nella presenza-assenza al suo tempo e nella difficile condizione di un intellettuale «solo perché libero» (Letteratura e potere, cit., p. 1172). Nel marzo 2000 partecipò a una conferenza in difesa di Adriano Sofri, organizzata dal citato PIE con Christian Salmon, Jacques Derrida, Jacqueline Risset e Antonio Tabucchi. Il mese successivo firmò la sua adesione al Manifesto in difesa della lingua italiana promosso tra gli altri da Luigi Manconi, Aldo Masullo, Vittorio Sermonti, nella convinzione che l’Italia «ha perso memoria di sé, della sua storia, della sua identità», e che «l’italiano è divenuta un’orrenda lingua, un balbettio invaso di linguaggi che non esprimono altro che merce e consumo» (Il lungo sonno della lingua, in Il Corriere della sera, 6 giugno 2000).
Dopo esser stato in Francia ospite d’onore dell’Académie française al Prix Italiques, dove lesse la relazione La patria immaginaria, (poi con il titolo I Vespri, i paladini e la patria immaginaria, in Stilos, 1° maggio 2001), nel 2002 si trovò a esprimere per motivi politici – insieme con Umberto Eco e Antonio Tabucchi – il suo rifiuto alla partecipazione al Salon du livre di Parigi come componente della delegazione ufficiale italiana. Nello stesso anno si recò in Palestina con il PIE, per consegnare un appello di pace ad Arafat (cfr. Madre coraggio, poi in La mia isola è Las Vegas, cit., pp. 195-200) e firmò anche un Manifesto contro la islamofobia, che sarebbe stato presentato poi alla Fundación de cultura islámica di Madrid il 30 gennaio 2007.
Intanto, era ascoltato, letto e studiato all’estero: nel 2002 tenne un ciclo di conferenze negli Stati Uniti, mentre si avvicendavano convegni e volumi a lui dedicati: Siracusa, Siviglia e tre convegni all’Università di Valencia per iniziativa di Irene Romera Pintor, traduttrice di opere consoliane. Con il convegno Éthique et écriture tenuto il 25 e 26 ottobre 2002, con la direzione di Dominique Budor (ed. in volume, Parigi 2007), l’Università Sorbonne di Parigi dedicava per la prima volta un convegno a uno scrittore vivente.
Nel 2003 l’Università di Roma «Tor Vergata» gli conferì la laurea honoris causa in lettere: pronunciò una lectio magistralis (La metrica della memoria) che riprendeva una fortunata relazione del 1996. Nello stesso anno, dal Ministère de la culture et de la communication francese, fu insignito del grado di officier dans l’Ordre des Arts et des lettres. Una seconda laurea honoris causa, in filologia moderna, gli venne conferita, insieme con Luigi Meneghello, da parte dell’Università di Palermo nel 2007.
Mentre proseguivano le edizioni di romanzi e raccolte di saggi in Europa, negli Stati Uniti e in Canada, a settembre 2004 Consolo iniziò a lavorare a una raccolta di racconti, che apparve postuma nel maggio 2012, a pochi mesi dalla morte, con il titolo La mia isola è Las Vegas, a cura di Nicolò Messina. Dichiarava intanto di lavorare al suo ultimo romanzo, Amor sacro e amor profano, del quale però nell’Archivio Consolo non sono state rinvenute carte.
Nel 2010 Consolo avrebbe dovuto introdurre un’opera di Roberto Saviano (La parola contro la camorra, DVD, Torino 2010) ma, risentito per alcune non condivise dichiarazioni letterarie e politiche del giovane autore, ritirò il suo testo.
Mentre dunque Consolo testimoniava la sua presenza nel segno della denuncia, e spesso del rifiuto, si moltiplicavano le trasposizioni delle sue opere letterarie. Erano transcodificazioni, da intendersi anche come viaggio dei testi, che rispondevano a specifici interessi di un intellettuale sempre attento ai diversi linguaggi artistici, in particolare alla pittura – che tanto attraversava la sua scrittura –, al teatro e soprattutto al cinema, consumato quest’ultimo come rito collettivo, come rievoca nel racconto-saggio scritto in occasione della proiezione di Nuovo cinema Paradiso di Giuseppe Tornatore (Dal buio, la vita, in Di qua dal faro, cit., pp. 1179-1184). Mentre si arenava il progetto di una riduzione cinematografica dello Spasimo di Palermo, proseguivano adattamenti teatrali delle sue opere. Dopo la versione di Retablo al teatro stabile di Catania, per la stessa regia di Daniela Ardini, Ugo Ronfani scrisse nel luglio 2010 l’adattamento del Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, andato in scena a Genova. Al festival di Cannes dello stesso anno venne presentato il progetto cinematografico Vivre ou rien, di Maria Agnès Viala e Giorgio Arlorio, tratto da Lo spasimo di Palermo.
Il 5 giugno del 2011, nonostante fosse affetto da un tumore in stadio avanzato, Consolo si recò personalmente a Ostana (Cuneo) per ricevere il premio Lenga Maire, dedicato alle scritture in lingue minoritarie. Teneva molto al premio, che riconosceva il suo impegno per far rivivere lingue marginali e in via di estinzione.
Morì poco dopo, a Milano, il 21 gennaio 2012. Rifiutando cerimonie pubbliche in fede alla volontà dell’Autore, la moglie Caterina fece celebrare le esequie a Sant’Agata di Militello il 23 gennaio, dove fu seppellito nella cappella di famiglia.
OPERE
Gran parte dei volumi editi sono ora raccolti nel «Meridiano» L’opera completa, a cura di G. Turchetta con un profilo di C. Segre, Milano 2015, da cui si cita e cui si rimanda anche per una esaustiva bibliografia degli scritti (che include articoli, saggi in volume, traduzioni, riscritture e altri scritti sparsi), insieme con una dettagliata bibliografia critica.
Il volume comprende (nell’ordine delle prime edizioni): La ferita dell’aprile, Milano 1963; Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, Torino 1976; Lunaria, ibid. 1985; Retablo, Palermo 1987; Le pietre di Pantalica, Milano 1988; Nottetempo, casa per casa, ibid. 1992; L’olivo e l’olivastro, ibid. 1994; Lo spasimo di Palermo, ibid. 1998; Di qua dal faro, ibid. 1999.
Ci si limita qui a segnalare i volumi non inclusi in quella edizione (anche postumi) e i saggi critici citati: Marina a Tindari. Poesie, Vercelli 1972; V. Consolo – N. Rubino, Fra contemplazione e Paradiso. Suggestioni dello Stretto, Messina 1988; Catarsi, in V. Consolo – G. Bufalino – L. Sciascia, Trittico, a cura di A. Di Grado – G. Lazzaro Damuso, Catania 1989; La Sicilia. Passeggiata, Torino 1991; Fuga dall’Etna. La Sicilia e Milano, la memoria e la storia, Roma 1993; Neró metallicó, Genova 1994; V. Consolo – M. Nicolao, Il viaggio di Odisseo, introd. di M. Corti, Milano 1999; Il Teatro del Sole. Racconti di Natale, Novara 1999; V. Consolo – F. Cassano, Lo sguardo italiano. Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Messina 2000; Oratorio, Lecce 2002; Isole dolci del Dio, Brescia 2002; Reading and writing the Mediterranean. Essays by V. C., a cura di N. Bouchard – M. Lollini, Toronto 2006; Il corteo di Dioniso, Roma 2009; Pio La Torre, orgoglio di Sicilia, Palermo 2009; L’attesa, Milano 2010; La mia isola è Las Vegas, a cura di N. Messina, ibid. 2012; Esercizi di cronaca, a cura di S. Grassia, Palermo 2013; Accordi. Poesie inedite di V. C., a cura di F. Zuccarello – C. Masetta Milone, S. Agata di Militello 2015.
FONTI E BIBLIOGRAFIA
M. Sinibaldi, La lingua ritrovata: V. C., in Leggere, II (1988), pp. 8-15; C. Segre, Introduzione a V. Consolo, Il Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, Milano 1987, pp. V-XVIII (poi in Id., Intrecci di voci. La polifonia nella letteratura del Novecento, Torino 1991, pp. 71-86); F. Di Legami, V. C. La figura e l’opera, Marina di Patti 1990; V. C., Nuove Effemeridi, VIII (1995/I), 29 (n. monografico); P. Farinelli, Strategie compositive, motivi e istanze nelle opere di V. C., in Italienisch, XXXVII (1997), pp. 38-45; F. Parazzoli, Il gioco del mondo, dialoghi sulla vita, i sogni, le memorie, Cinisello Balsamo 1998, pp. 21-33; G. Traina, V. C., Fiesole 2001; E. Papa, V. C., in Belfagor, LVIII (2003), 2, pp. 179-198; Per V. C., Atti delle giornate di studio… 2003, a cura di E. Papa, San Cesario di Lecce 2004; Leggere V. C. – Llegir V. C., a cura di M.A. Cuevas, in Quaderns d’Italià, X (2005), pp. 5-132; «Lunaria» vent’anni dopo, a cura di I. Romera Pintor, Valencia 2006; La parola scritta e pronunciata. Nuovi saggi sulla narrativa di V. C., a cura di G. Adamo, San Cesario di Lecce 2006; V. C. Éthique et écriture, Atti del Convegno… 2002, a cura di D. Budor, Paris 2007; L. Terrusi, L’onomastica nel «Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio» di V. C., in Il Nome del testo, XIV (2012), pp. 55-63.
Si sa che, con la fine del latino, nel medioevo italiano, si è imposto in letteratura, sulle altre realtà linguistiche e regionali, il dialetto toscano. Questo è avvenuto grazie ai tre grandi padri della letteratura italiana: Dante, Petrarca e Boccaccio. Ma si sa anche che il primo nucleo della nuova lingua italia-na, o volgare, come si chiamò, si formò in Sicilia, che i primi poeti in lingua italiana furono siciliani, quei poeti della cosiddetta Scuola Poetica Siciliana che si trovarono raccolti nella palermitana corte dell’imperatore Federico II o che attorno ad essa ruotavano. E questo afferma Dante nel De vulgari eloquentia. In lingua siciliana poetavano in quella corte, in una lingua cioè che era mistilinguismo, in cui vi erano echi anche della lingua araba. Ma arabo era soprattutto lo stile di quei poeti: uno stile lirico, un po’ manieristico, nella costruzione di complicate metafore. Le rime, i sonetti, i contrasti di Cielo d’Alcamo, Jacopo da Lentini, Guido delle Colonne, Re Enzo, Pier delle igne, di altri, non molto si discostano dalle qaside dei poeti siculo-a-rabi che con l’avvento dei Normanni avevano lasciato l’isola. E basta ricordare tra tutti il siracusano Ibn Amdis. Dal suo esilio maghrebino cosi cantava:
Ricordo la Sicilia, e il dolore ne suscita nell’anima il ricordo. Un luogo di giovanili follie ora deserto, animato un dì dal fiore di nobili ingegni. Se son stato cacciato da un paradiso, come posso io darne notizia? Se non fosse l’amarezza delle lacrime, le crederei i fiumi di quel paradiso… O mare, di là da te io ho un paradiso, in cui mi vestii di letizia, non di sciagura!…
La cultura araba ha lasciato nell’isola un’impronta tale che dal suo innestarsi nell’isola si può dire che cominci la storia siciliana. “Indubbiamente gli abitanti dell’isola di Sicilia cominciano a comportarsi da siciliani dopo la conquista araba” dice Sciascia. Il quale, mutando da Américo Castro lo schema che il grande storico aveva applicato alla Spagna, chiama descrivibile la vita siciliana prima degli Arabi, narrabile quella sotto la dominazione araba, storicizzabi-le quella che viene dopo. Sciascia fa quindi iniziare quello che egli chiama il modo d’essere siciliano proprio dalla dominazione araba. La cultura araba ha inciso nell’isola soprattutto in quella parte occiden-tale che ha per vertici Mazara e Palermo. I segni arabi sono durati in quella parte per un millennio e più, nel carattere della gente, nelle fisionomie, nei costumi, nell’architettura, nella lingua, nella letteratura, popolare e no. Durati per un millennio fino a ieri. “Ciò che non fecero i barbari fecero i Barberini”. E i Barberini questa volta, anche qui, in questa remota plaga dell’Italia e dell’Europa, sono i messaggi della civiltà di massa che tendono a distruggere le vere, autentiche culture, per tutto livellare, miseramente omologare. Ma torniamo all’inizio della conquista musulmana di Sicilia. In una notte di giugno dell’827, una piccola fotta di musulmani (Arabi, Mesopotamici, Egi-ziani, Siriani, Libici, Maghrebini, Spagnoli), al comando del dotto giurista settantenne Asad Ibn al-Furt, partita dalla fortezza di Susa, nella odierna Tunisia, emirato degli Aghlabiti, attraversato il braccio di mare di poco più di cento chilometri, sbarcava in un piccolo porto della Sicilia: Mazara (nella storia ci sono a volte sorprendenti incroci, ritorni: Mazar è un toponimo di origine punica lasciato nell’isola dai Cartaginesi). Da Mazara quindi partiva la conquista di tutta la Sicilia, dall’occidente fino all’oriente, fino alla bizantina e inespugnabile Siracusa, dove si concludeva dopo ben settantacinque anni. Si formò in Sicilia, dopo la conquista, un emirato dipendente formalmente dal califfato di Baghdad. I musulmani in Sicilia, dopo le depredazioni e le spoliazioni del Romani, dopo l’estremo abbandono dei Bizantini, l’accentramento del potere nelle mani della chiesa, dei monasteri, i musulmani trovano una terra povera, desertica, se pure ricca di risorse. Ma con i musulmani comincia per la Sicilia una sorta di rinascimento. L’isola viene divisa amministrativamente in tre Valli: Val di Mazara, Val Dèmone e Val di Noto; rifiorisce l’agricoltura grazie a nuove tecniche agricole, a nuovi sistemi di irrigazione, di ricerca e di convogliamento delle acque, all’introduzione di nuove colture (l’ulivo e la vite, il limone e l’arancio, il sommacco e il cotone…); rifiorisce la pesca, specialmente quella del tonno, grazie alle ingegnose tecniche della tonnara; rifiorisce l’artigianato, il commercio, l’arte. Ma il miracolo più grande che si opera durante la dominazione musulmana e lo spirito di tolleranza, la convivenza fra popoli di cultura, razza, religione diverse. Questa tolleranza, questo sincretismo culturale erediteranno poi i Normanni, sotto i quali si realizza veramente la società ideale, quella società in cui ogni cultura, ogni etnia vive nel rispetto di quella degli altri. Di questa società arabo-normanna, di cui ci daranno testimonianza viaggiatori come Ibn Giubayr, il geografo Idrisi, Ibn Hawqal, sono segni evidenti quelle chiese, quei monasteri, quelle cappelle, quelle residenze reali, quei giardini che ancora oggi si possono vedere a Palermo o in altre località vicine. Così scrive Ibn Giubayr di Palermo: “In questa città i musulmani conservano traccie di lor credenza; essi tengono in buono stato la maggior parte delle loro moschee e vi fanno la preghiera alla chiamata del muezzin… Vi hanno un qadì al quale si appellano nelle loro divergenze, e una moschea congregazionale dove si radunano per le funzioni, e in questo mese santo vi fanno grande sfoggio di luminarie. Le moschee ordinarie poi sono tante da non contarsi; la più parte servono di scuola ai maestri del Corano”. Non voglio, né so fare qui tutta la storia del periodo musulmano di Sicilia. Voglio però qui rimandare a La Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia scritta da un grande siciliano del secolo scorso: Michele Amari. Quest’apostolo della cultura e della libertà (egli combatté contro la dominazione borbonica nell’Italia meridionale e per l’Unità d’Italia) scrisse questa monumentale opera in cinque volumi durante il suo esilio politico in Francia, a Parigi. Nelle biblioteche di quella città, dopo aver imparato l’arabo, Amari reperì e tradusse documenti storici, memorie, letteratura araba che riguardava la Sicilia. “La storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia è una delle più suggestive opere d’intenti storici che da un secolo circa siano state scritte in Europa” scrive Elio Vittorini. E aggiunge: “La storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia voleva essere, forse, solo un frammento della storia patria, ma sembra che abbia avuto per punto di partenza, da come è scritta, una seduzione del cuore, qualche favolosa idea che l’Amari fanciullo si formò del mondo arabo tra le letture dei vecchi libri e i ricordi locali”. E come poteva non scrivere con la “seduzione del cuore”, cioè con rigore scientifico, ma anche con visionarietà e poesia, Michele Amari, nato e cresciuto a Palermo, in quella Palermo che ancora nel secolo scorso conservava non pochi vestigi, non poche tradizioni, non poca cultura araba? Basti pensare al castello della Zisa (restaurato, sembra destinato ora a museo islamico), alla Favara, ai bagni di Cefalà Diana, alla Cuba, alla Cubula, al quartiere della Kalsa, ai suq, ai mercati della Vucciria, di Ballarò o dei Lattarini, a San Giovanni degli Eremiti, alla Martorana, alla stessa cattedrale… Ultimi splendori della Palermo araba dalle numerose moschee, dai giardini, dai bagni innumerevoli, con cui poteva stare a confronto soltanto Cordova. Dopo l’Unità d’Italia, dopo il 1860, Amari, nominato ministro della Pubblica Istruzione, non smise di coltivare i suoi studi di arabo. Così, oltre La storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia, ci ha lasciato una Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, Epigrafi, Sulwan al-mutà di lbn Zafir, Tardi studi di storia arabo-mediterranea. Per lui, nel suo esempio e per suo merito, si sono poi tradotti in Italia scrittori, memorialisti, poeti arabi classici. Per lui e dopo di lui è venuta a formarsi in Italia la gloriosa scuola di arabisti o orientalisti che ebbe le sue eminenti figure in Ignazio e Michelangelo Guidi, Giorgio Levi Della Vida, Leone Caetani, Carlo Alfonso Nallino, Celestino Schiaparelli, Umberto Rizzitano e il famoso Francesco Gabrieli. Il quale ultimo, idealmente continuando l’opera di Michele Amari, pubblicava nel 1980, in collaborazione con altri, un poderoso e documentatissimo volume dal titolo Gli Arabi in Italia. E scriveva, nel 1983, nel volume collettivo Rasa’il, in onore di Umberto Rizzitano, un capitolo dal titolo Attraverso il canale di Sicilia (Italia e Tunisia). Capitolo in cui fa la storia dei rapporti fra i due paesi, dall’antichità e fino a oggi. Ma più che della Tunisia con l’Italia, della Tunisia con la Sicilia, così vicine le due, geograficamente e culturalmente, così uguali. E ricordava Gabrieli, che già sul finire della dominazione araba in Sicilia, il grande letterato tunisino Ibn Rashîq faceva in tempo a venire a chiudere la sua vita a Mazara, mentre sull’opposta sponda tunisina, a Monastir, s’innalzava un mausoleo al giureconsulto mazarese, all’Imaàm al-Màzari. E ancora: “Nella scuola di lingue Bu Rqiba, i nostri giovani studenti dell’arabo e dell’Islàm han trovato da molti anni il più efficiente centro di iniziazione linguistica, in un diretto contatto con la terra dell’Islàm ispirato da puro interesse scientifico e spirituale”. Per merito di questi valorosi arabisti italiani si sono tradotti i classici arabi, a partire da una splendida edizione, curata proprio da Gabrieli, de Le mille e una notte. Ma della letteratura, del romanzo e della poesia maghrebina contemporanea gli editori italiani solo da qualche anno han cominciato a pubblicare qualcosa. Negli anni ’50 si svolse a Roma un convegno di scrittori arabi in cui si esaminarono i mezzi per una migliore diffusione delle loro opere in Italia. Questa non può avvenire che attraverso le traduzioni e quindi di una maggiore diffusione della lingua araba. In questi anni ciò è avvenuto, la lingua araba è sempre più studiata. Riallacciandoci allo scritto di Francesco Gabrieli, ripartiamo da quel porticciolo siciliano che si chiama Mazara in cui sbarcò la flotta musulmana di Asad Ibn alFuràt. Partire da lì per dire, in uno con quelli letterari o oltre essi, anche di altri sbarchi, di siciliani nel Maghreb e di maghrebini in Sicilia.
Le onde tremende lo spingono, quasi lo sbattono, sfracellandolo, contro l’alta costa di basalto. Il naufrago riesce ad afferrare lo spuntone d’una roccia, ne viene subito staccato dal risucchio dell’acqua e, ferito nelle mani, è ancora in balia, fragile uomo, della furia del mare. Nuota disperato sottocosta fino a che non si trova di fronte a una insenatura piana, alla foce di un fiume. Prega la divinità fluviale d’arrestare lo scorrere rapido delle sue acque perché possa finalmente approdare, uscir dal mare, salvarsi dalla tempesta, da sicura fine. E così, spossato, ferito, i polmoni pieni di salmastro, tocca finalmente la spiaggia, avanza sopra una solida superficie, tra alberi e arbusti. È l’uomo più solo sulla terra, senza più un compagno, un oggetto, l’uomo più spoglio e debole, in preda a smarrimento, panico, in una terra estrema, sconosciuta, che come e più del mare può nascondere ancora pericoli, violenze. Ulisse ha toccato il punto più basso dell’impotenza umana, della vulnerabilità. Come una bestia ora, nuda e martoriata, debole, trova riparo in una tana, fra un olivo e un olivastro (spuntano da uno stesso tronco questi due simboli del selvatico e del coltivato, del bestiale e dell’umano, spuntano come presagio d’una biforcazione di sentiero o di destino, della possibilità di salvezza dentro un consorzio umano), si nasconde sotto le foglie secche per passare la notte paurosa che incombe. È svegliato nel mattino dalle voci, dalle grida festose e aggraziate di fanciulle, di Nausicaa e delle sue compagne. E si presenta a loro, la nudità schermata, l’organo sessuale occultato da una fronda simbolica per non allarmare le vergini, come il più dimesso, il più umile dei supplici. Così Ulisse entra nella terra dei Feaci, nel luminoso regno di Alcinoo, nella ricchezza, nel seno di una altissima civiltà, l’utopia, regno appartato, remoto, incontaminato (tutto qui è opposto al desolato, periglioso, infecondo, all’oscuro mare, opposto a tutti i passati approdi infidi e disastrosi: il rigoglioso giardino di Alcinoo, la fastosa reggia, la saggia moglie regina, i figli belli e valorosi, l’accogliente corte, il popolo amichevole). Entra in questo regno, Ulisse, e noi, lasciata la cornice dell’epica e la narrazione in terza persona, entriamo nel cuore del poema, nella narrazione testimoniale in prima persona svolta dal protagonista, dall’eroe. Narrazione a ritroso, in un lunghissimo flash-back. Che comincia, come nel passaggio di una soglia magica, di un confine iniziatico, nel momento in cui Ulisse, con i suoi compagni, le sue navi, lascia la distrutta Ilio e intraprende il viaggio di ritorno verso Itaca. È un viaggio da oriente verso occidente, in una dimensione orizzontale. Ma, una volta immerso nella sfera marina, è come se fosse, quello di Ulisse, un viaggio in verticale, una discesa negli abissi, nelle ignote dimore, dove, a grado a grado, tutto diventa orrifico, atroce, mostruoso (il mostruoso “naturale” sembra che faccia qui da contrappunto a quel “mostruoso” artificiale, tecnologico, progettato da Ulisse, a quel cavallo di legno, arma estrema, infida e dirompente, che ha segnato la fine di Troia, della guerra), e a grado a grado sono smarrimenti, inganni, oblii, allucinazioni, perdite tremende fino all’estrema solitudine, all’assoluta nudità, al rischio estremo per la ragione e per la vita. Il romanzo di Ulisse non poteva che svolgersi in mare, perché il mare, questo cammino mobile e mutevole, è il luogo dove avviene il distacco dalla realtà, dove fiorisce il fantastico, il surreale, l’onirico, la fascinazione, l’ossessione, dove la ragione si oscura e trovano varco i mostri. Attraversate tutte le perdite, le follie, concluso il vagare per l’infido mare, divenuto più consapevole, più sapiente, più umano, Ulisse potrà finalmente raggiungere Itaca, affrontare i nemici reali, storici, installatisi nella sua casa; con l’aiuto del figlio, di Telemaco, ricolmare la lunga assenza, ricongiungersi con Penelope, rinsaldare lo squarcio della sua vita. Purgato d’ogni colpa, dopo il viaggio penitenziale, ritrovare l’armonia perduta.
La polivalenza della forma, del genere e del linguaggio testimoniano la volontà di resistere, tra l’altro, contro reificazioni di senso. La forma elicoidale delle lumache illustra in modo convincente il carattere indefinito delle potenzialità allegoriche nascoste nei testi consoliani. Nel romanzo Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio questo segno è stato posto ad emblema della bellezza della natura, dell’enigma della storia e dell’oscurità umana60. Le contaminazioni “storiche” di Consolo sono stratificate a più livelli. Esattamente come il simbolo della chiocciola (o spirale degli eventi) che è il culmine del libro Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio61. La figura della chiocciola costituisce, come anche quella dell’“ignoto marinaio”, una specie di Leitmotiv; è la metafora dell’ingiustizia sociale dovuta alla distanza fra i privilegiati della classe colta (ai quali appartiene anche il barone Mandralisca che nelle sue ricerche scientifiche si occupa proprio di chiocciole) 59 R. Andò: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 10. 60 Cfr. F. Di Legami: L’intellettuale al caffé. Incontri con testimoni e interpreti del nostro tempo. Interviste a Leonardo Sciascia, Vincenzo Consolo, Gesualdo Bufalino, Ignazio Buttita, dal programma radiofonico di Loredana Cacicia e Sergio Palumbo, prodotto e trasmesso da Rai Sicilia nel 1991. Palermo, Officine Grafiche Riunite, 2013, p. 53. 61 Cfr. A. Giuliani: Edonismo… e la gente senza cultura e senza voce, e alla distanza fra la classe dei possidenti e quelli che, come i contadini d’Alcàra, si sono mossi “per una causa vera, concreta, corporale: la terra” (SIM, 93). Alla fine del testo Mandralisca s’immagina una nuova scrittura storiografica, una riscrittura che procede dal fondo della chiocciola: “conoscere com’è la storia che vorticando dal profondo viene” (SIM, 112). Sotto il segno della chiocciola si condensano più livelli: a chiocciola è l’architettura del carcere in cui si conclude il racconto, architettura che riproduce “il vorticare” della storia; a chiocciola ossia a spirale è la lettura delle scritte che ne tempestano le pareti. Ma il termine “chiocciola”, in cui si condensa tutta la passione di ricercatore del barone Mandralisca, la sua scienza, viene finalmente degradato a esprimere l’astrazione degli “ideali” di fronte alla spinta concreta della rivolta popolana: “una lumaca!”. Alla chiusa del romanzo la figura fisica, il simbolo, la struttura linguistica e narrativa, coincidono con un effetto intenso e felice; quanto basta per sigillare l’intelligenza e la validità di un libro 62. Anche i pensieri nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio sono raffigurati in una inarrestabile scesa spiraliforme dal palazzo del barone Mandralisca e dalla buona società in cui si congiura contro i Borboni (primo e secondo capitolo) all’eremo di Santo Nicolò, fino ai villici e ai braccianti di Alcara Li Fusi (terzo e quinto capitolo); le volute diventano gironi infernali con la strage dei borghesi perpetrata ad Alcàra (settimo capitolo). Questa discesa è anche linguistica: al sommo c’è il linguaggio vivido e barocco dei primi capitoli; negli inferi (nono e ultimo capitolo) le scritte compendiarie dei prigionieri, emerse dall’odio, dal rimorso, dalla nostalgia di libertà. Ulla Musarra-Schrøder scopre anche che il dialetto siciliano è sommariamente italianizzato; e quello gallo-romanzo di San Fratello, nella scritta XII, prende già movenze di canto. Ma questi due estremi linguistici e le realizzazioni intermedie non si sovrappongono a strati, bensì si alternano o si mescolano, sempre secondo uno schema elicoidale63. 62 Cfr. G. Gramigna: Un barocco… 63 Cfr. U. Musarra-Schrøder: I procedimenti di riscrittura nel romanzo contemporaneo italiano…, pp. 560—563. 112 Capitolo III: L’idea della struttura per frammenti Secondo Sebastiano Addamo il simbolo della lumaca64 va analizzato nel modo in cui risulta più utile ai fini dell’interpretazione. Soggettivamente, cioè rispetto al personaggio maggiore del romanzo, il barone Enrico Pirajno de Mandralisca, la lumaca può rappresentare la classica attività dell’intellettuale tradizionale. Ma oggettivamente è ben altro, dato che il medesimo barone Pirajno paragona le lumache da un lato al carcere, che è un simbolo del potere, e, dall’altro, alla proprietà, che è il potere medesimo, e sotto tale aspetto la proprietà viene infatti definita come “la più grossa, mostruosa, divoratrice lumaca che sempre s’è aggirata strisciando per il mondo”65. Il sesto capitolo del romanzo è tutto attraversato dalla metafora della chiocciola, metafora plurima che designa successivamente i privilegi della cultura, l’ingiustizia del potere, e la proprietà come usurpazione 66. La metafora realizza una sorta di autocritica, dato che di chiocciole si occupa principalmente Mandralisca nelle sue ricerche scientifiche; diventa poi schema descrittivo, nel capitolo ottavo, quando si parla del carcere di Sant’Agata di Militello, in cui sono rinchiusi i colpevoli dell’eccidio di Alcàra. E proprio alla fine del capitolo, che è anche l’ultimo da attribuire ufficialmente al narratore (dato che il nono raccoglie senza commenti le scritte dei prigionieri) troviamo una sezione dei sotterranei a chiocciola nel castello, con un’ulteriore metafora: 64 Consolo ha attribuito il ruolo plurisignificante alla chiocciola nelle sue narrazioni, servendosi anche dei motivi della spirale o del labirinto. Senz’altro si può interpretare la presenza della chiocciola secondo la chiave proposta da Mircea Eliade sempre dove Consolo parla della fine, della morte, della devastazione o della metamorfosi: le civiltà antiche riconoscevano nelle lumache il simbolo del concepimento, della gravidanza e del parto. Similmente, i cinesi, associano i molluschi con la morte, e con i rituali funebri che dovrebbero garantire la forza e la resistenza dell’uomo nella sua futura vita cosmica. Cfr. M. Eliade: Obrazy i symbole. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo KR, 1998, pp. 156—159. 65 S. Addamo: Linguaggio e barocco in Vincenzo Consolo. In: Idem: Oltre le figure. Palermo, Sellerio, 1989, pp. 121—125. 66 Il concetto di “fortezza — labirinto” prende avvio dalle teorie sviluppate sia da Kerényi che da Eliade e riguardanti il fenomeno della costruzione a chiocciola come archetipo biologico di origine e di percezione. Un’immagine ipnotizzante a forma di chiocciola Ma ora noi leggiamo questa chiocciola per doveroso compito, con amarezza e insieme con speranza, nel senso d’interpretare questi segni loquenti sopra il muro d’antica pena e quindi di riurto: conoscere com’è la storia che vorticando dal profondo viene; immaginare anche quella che si farà nell’avvenire. SIM, 139 Lo schema elicoidale della chiocciola può servire bene per analizzare il romanzo, come ci autorizza a fare Consolo, citando all’inizio di questo capitolo ottavo una frase di Filippo Buonanni, da Ricreatione dell’Occhio e della Mente nell’Osseruation’ delle Chiocciole (Roma, 1681)67: […] sempre più vi accorgerete, che Iddio, compreso sotto il vocabolo di Natura, in ogni suo lavoro Geometrizza, come dicean gli Antichi, onde possano con ugual fatica, e diletto nella semplice voluta d’una Chiocciola raffigurarsi i Pensieri. Alla metafora quindi dell’ironico sorriso, effigiato nel quadro di Antonello da Messina, si associa, opposta e complementare l’immagine della lumaca, emblema di un percorso oscuro in cui si trovano sofferenze e dolori non testimoniati. “V’è una inarrestabile discesa spiraliforme — ha scritto Segre — dal palazzo del barone Mandralisca e dalla buona società in cui i congiura contro i Borboni all’eremo di Santo Nicolò, alla combriccola di Santa Marecùma, sino ai villici e braccianti di Alcara Li Fusi; le volute diventano gironi infernali con la strage di borghesi perpetrata ad Alcara, e bolgia ancora più fonda quando nelle carceri sotterranee di Sant’Agata vengono racchiusi i colpevoli”68. Anche se presentato in modo molto dettagliato, questo luogo di isolamento rappresenta uno di tanti luoghi opachi, utopici e incantati. 67 Cfr. C. Segre: Intrecci di voci…, p. 81. 68 F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 26.
„Scrittore isolato, e solitario, sciolto cioè da legami politici [quali crede] dovrebbero essere gli scrittori, liberi da impegni partitici, ma legati da impegni ideali, morali, storici”. Con queste parole Salvatore Mazzarella definisce l’atteggiamento ideologico di Consolo1 . Parlare dell’ingiustizia, della sofferenza e dell’umiltà nella cultura occidentale significa addentrarsi in una zona pericolosa. Di solito questi argomenti vengono sviluppati in un discorso dedicato alle radici cristiane della nostra civiltà e quando si espone la nozione di sofferenza in una dimensione universale. Il divieto, l’esteticità, l’inopportunità e la convenzione — tutti i concetti indicati appaiono quando si parla del tabù. Esso diventa una sempre più diffusa zona che interessa l’esperienza morale al pari di quella concettuale e da cui l’uomo di cultura si sente attratto e nello stesso tempo deluso. I critici e i lettori sono convinti che lo scrittore sia caratterizzato da “una profonda tensione etica che lo avvicina ai grandi moralisti del passato, tesi ed attenti al compito di descrivere l’uomo nella sua mutevole, e pure, 1 S. Mazzarella: Dell’olivo e dell’olivastro, ossia d’un viaggiatore. “Nuove Effemeridi” 1995, n. 29, p. 65. 38 eterna storia”2 .
E non basta dire che lo scrittore è propenso a fare del suo stile “un mezzo di intervento e di rivolta, ma anche di proposta umanistica” 3 . Per tale ragione, l’esortazione a non fargli mancare “l’impegno per la giustizia e il risalto netto della voce dei deboli” diventa l’elemento fermo della sua narrativa 4 . Nati spesso dalla suggestione delle letture, degli incontri e delle polemiche dell’attualità, i dilemmi che muovono la riflessione del narratore siciliano relativo alla distinzione tra lo scrivere e il narrare si avvicinano nella loro forma e contenuto all’esercizio scrittorio “capace di incidere sul reale in senso conoscitivo e trasformativo”5 , ideati nei turbini della realtà estranea e vergati su molteplici esperienze, fino a costruire una congerie omogenea e ordinata di sequenze. Dice Consolo: Dopo Hiroshima e Auschwitz, dopo Stalin e Sarajevo, dopo tutti gli orrori di oggi, quei mostri profetizzati da Kafka o da Musil, da Eliot, da Joyce o da Pirandello, sono diventati mostri della storia. Questi mostri credo che la letteratura, il romanzo abbia oggi l’obbligo di affrontare. Altrimenti è alienazione, fuga, colpevole assenza, se non complicità6 . Considerando la genesi della scrittura consoliana, è necessario sottolineare lo stretto legame che intercorre fra la complessità delle cose e le vibrazioni affettive e razionali che costituiscono il tratto distintivo della sua scelta di scrittura. 2 F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo. La figura e l’opera. Marina di Patti, Pungitopo, 1990, p. 28. 3 Ibidem, p. 6. 4 Cfr. C. Ternullo: Vincenzo Consolo: dalla Ferita allo Spasimo. Catania, Prova d’Autore, 1998, p. 30. 5 F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 6. 6 V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna. La Sicilia e Milano, la memoria e la storia. Roma, Donzelli Editore, 1993, pp. 51—53. (Dalla nota dell’editore: l’intervista a Vincenzo Consolo raccolta in questo volume è stata effettuata il 25 giugno del 1993 a Roma. L’incontro era stato organizzato dall’Imes (Istituto meridionale di storia e scienza sociali), nall’ambito di una iniziativa intitolata “Percorsi di ricerca”, tesa a indagare l’interazione tra la vicenda umana e l’itinerario intellettuale di alcune figure particolarmente significative della cultura del nostro tempo).
L’esigenza dell’impegno. A ben vedere i tratti che segnano le opere consoliane sono caratterizzati da una propria articolazione della realtà attraverso una comunicazione più immediata e da una responsabilità etica e civile: la presenza di ciò che ha contraddistinto la maggior parte della sua esistenza. Non sarà un caso che all’interno dell’opera il pensiero sul ruolo della produzione letteraria si presenti con frequenza: accompagnato dal senso di una necessità naturale e spesso corretto da una speranza nella capacità della scrittura di mettere ordine e di “portare armonia là dove c’è caos e quindi impossibilità di comunicare”7 . Si pensi alla confessione dello scrittore stesso: “La mia ideologia o se volete la mia utopia consiste nell’oppormi al potere, qualsiasi potere, nel combattere con l’arma della scrittura, che è come la fionda di David, o meglio come la lancia di Don Chisciotte, le ingiustizie, le sopraffazioni, le violenze, i mali e gli orrori del nostro tempo”8 . Le allusioni a David e a Don Chisciotte mettono in rilievo la consapevolezza che la riflessione e la scrittura, e soprattutto una scrittura eticamente e politicamente impegnata, sono una missione. All’atteggiamento di una tale consapevolezza sono dedicate tutte le narrazioni consoliane. Secondo Vincenzo Consolo la narrativa dovrebbe esprimere una responsabilità civile e prendere posizione davanti agli avvenimenti. L’accostamento della scrittura e della responsabilità testimonia la sua personale forma di opposizione o di impulso verso qualcosa di migliore. Quello che conta nelle opere consoliane sono la verosimiglianza dell’osservazione morale, la consapevolezza ritradotta in disincanto e in frustrazione delle speranze, la ribellione, e infine, l’indagine. È possibile comprendere più a fondo le scelte espressive di Consolo confrontando il presente frammento: […] lo scrittore oggi ha il compito di dire, di narrare. Narrare oggettivamente in terza persona dei mostri, delle mostruosità che abbiamo creato, con cui, privi ormai di memoria, di rimorso, pri 7 L. Canali: Che schiaffo la furia civile di Consolo. “L’Unità” 1998, il 7 ottobre, pp. 1, 19. 8 V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna…, p. 70. 40
vi dell’assillo di raggiungere una meta, da alienati, felicemente conviviamo 9 . Per accrescere la forza espressiva della riflessione, Consolo aggiunge al generico e spoglio verbo “narrare” l’avverbio: “oggettivamente” che non solo mostra la direzione dell’accurato lavoro di chi scrive ma rivela la stretta connessione fra il messaggio e la responsabilità dell’esistenza altrui. La preoccupazione dell’avvenire, che interessa scarsamente l’uomo mentre gode dei piaceri mondani, è infatti sollecitata dall’acre percezione del dolore subito nel passato. Il frammento sopraccitato indica il coinvolgimento degli intellettuali nell’ordine etico, determinando gli accessibili modelli della presentazione. Molte volte viene sottolineato il fatto che quello che sconcerta il lettore è che non vi è stata giustizia in passato e non vi è nemmeno nel presente. Fortunatamente esiste ancora chi non si arrende. Il protagonista del capolavoro consoliano Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, il barone Enrico Pirajno di Mandralisca dichiara la crisi irreversibile del suo ruolo di intellettuale organico alla classe dominante: la consapevolezza di una “Storia come scrittura continua di privilegiati” (SIM, 112), di un’impossibilità delle classi subalterne a far sentire la loro voce e il loro giudizio, si salda alla consapevolezza dei “vizi” e delle “storture” che gravano sui pensieri e sulle parole degli stessi aristocratici e borghesi “cosiddetti illuminati”, dell’oggettiva incapacità dei loro “codici” a “interpretare” i problemi delle masse oppresse10. Dunque l’attaccamento all’esperienza della giustizia deve affrontare continuamente il pensiero della frustrazione e con la temibile insidia della debolezza. Se il pensiero della sconfitta può essere solo attenuato dal grido e dal pianto, sempre pronto a svelare gli indegni comportamenti umani, il rimedio all’impotenza va cercato altrove. Si legga l’ampio pensiero di Giuseppe Amoroso: Nella prosa di Vincenzo Consolo, quello che appare e percuote e grida e geme è una presenza vera di lacrime e certezze e anche 9 Ibidem, p. 22. 10 Cfr. G.C. Ferretti: L’intelligenza e follia. “Rinascita” 1976, il 23 luglio. L’esigenza dell’impegno 41 un assiduo riprendere, del tempo, ciò che si è smarrito, non del tutto, non per sempre, portandosi dentro anche i gloriosi cascami della storia […], questa prosa mostra una solennità intangibile, pure dove si china sulle frange, sui refoli, sui margini, in cerca di colori e oggetti e riti di una volta11. Dopo aver constatato che l’espressività di questa prosa è dovuta all’argomento analizzato, Amoroso prosegue con la descrizione della scrittura consoliana marcata da una funzione inconfondibile. Il vuoto e l’insoddisfazione dovuti all’avanzare dell’ingiustizia si placano nella convinzione che “la letteratura, il romanzo abbia oggi l’obbligo di affrontare i mostri creati dai potenti. Altrimenti è alienazione, fuga, colpevole assenza, se non complicità”12. Tramite l’analisi presentata il critico vuole decisamente sottolineare l’atteggiamento spirituale piuttosto romantico dello scrittore e l’espressione dei pensieri come studiata e ripensata. Nell’insieme, la produzione consoliana, secondo Amoroso, ha una sua solida struttura, e fa presagire le future ampiezze di respiro lirico. I cinque romanzi sottoposti alla presente analisi sono stati scritti nell’arco di oltre trent’anni. La circostanza, ad avvalorare l’immagine di instancabile ribelle che Consolo ha lasciato di sé, non manca di presentare traccia nella varietà degli argomenti, e dei punti di vista che sono diventati i motivi costanti nella sua scrittura. Spesso si ha l’impressione che l’omogeneità della sua prosa risponda a un’intima esigenza di impegno etico, civile, ideologico e sperimentale. Queste considerazioni, se non illustrano organicamente la poetica della sua prosa, meritano di essere tenute in conto per comprendere, se non altro, i tempi adombrati dai fantasmi delle oppressioni descritte dallo scrittore siciliano. Con Nottetempo, casa per casa in Consolo subentra una rimeditazione, una sosta pensosa sui fatti, sui luoghi, la denuncia. Il testo si basa sulla deliberata ricerca del clima apocalittico, preannunciato dal titolo, e sul resoconto mai banale della pena più antica del tempo, della storia, dell’esistere. Come con 11 G. Amoroso: Il notaio della Via Lattea. Narrativa italiana 1996—1998. Caltanissetta—Roma, Salvatore Sciascia editore, 2000, pp. 464—467. 12 V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna…, pp. 51—53. 42
stata Antonio Grillo, abbiamo la forte affermazione della necessità di un impegno da parte degli scrittori13. E Consolo, parlando delle questioni di moralità, vuole sensibilizzare la percezione dei lettori. Silvio Perella, accortosi di tale valenza etica, aggiunge: “il fatto è che, giustamente, l’aspetto etico della sua letteratura sta molto a cuore a Consolo”14. Sa bene lo scrittore che la forza e l’incisività del suo messaggio stanno nell’immediatezza del comunicato espressa dalle narrazioni nei suoi frammenti più drammatici. Il che costituisce, se non una prova del rivolgere la sua attenzione alle sorti degli emarginati, certo una riflessione eloquente sul bisogno di narrare, di raccontare le vecchie e le nuove pene. E nella torre ora, dopo le urla, il pianto, anch’egli stanco, s’era chetato. Si mise in ginocchio a terra, appoggiò le braccia alla pietra bianca della macina riversa di quello ch’era stato un tempo un mulino a vento, e cercò di scrivere nel suo quaderno — ma intinge la penna nell’inchiostro secco, nel catrame del vetro, nei pori della lava, nei grumi dell’ossidiana, cosparge il foglio di polvere, di cenere, un soffio, e si rivela il nulla, l’assenza d’ogni segno, rivela l’impotenza, l’incapacità di dire, di raccontare la vita, il patimento. N, 53
La caratteristica principale di quest’articolazione non è la spontaneità peculiare piuttosto dei romantici, ma lo sforzo di trovare le parole più adatte. Grazie al potere di nominare i fenomeni, precedentemente impossibili da esprimere, acquistano l’esistenza, e in conseguenza la propria identità. La forma lirica invece assume una responsabilità che rende possibile l’esistenza di un soggetto e la cognizione di esso. L’anticlimax: “catrame — lava — ossidiana — polvere — cenere — nulla” sottolinea la vanità dello sforzo artistico nei confronti della prepotenza e del dolore che ostacolano il processo creativo. Vengono qui evidenziati, quindi, un appassionato attacco 13 Cfr. A. Grillo: Appunti su Odisseo e il suo viaggio nella cultura siciliana contemporanea: da Vittorini a Consolo e a Cattafi. In: Ulisse nel tempo. La metafora infinita. A cura di S. Nicosia. Venezia, Marsilio, 2000, pp. 593—597. 14 S. Perella: Tra etica e barocco. “L’Indice” 1992, maggio.
all’ingiustizia che assume valore universale, la contradditoria asistematicità di un ricerca esistenziale che non esita a dar voce anche alle pulsioni inconsce e persino alle più inconfessabili, confermata nell’elenco degli espedienti retorici che precedono direttamente l’espressione finale dell’impotenza di “raccontare la vita, il patimento”. Si potrebbe dire che la scrittura si ponga piuttosto come terreno di conflitto che come luogo della sua soluzione. L’esigenza di messaggio è indubitabile15. La caustica riflessione dello scrittore sigla l’amara ricognizione sulle cause della caduta delle forti e generose illusioni riguardanti le facoltà comunicative. Infatti, in una delle sue interviste Consolo dichiara: È necessario scrivere in una forma non più dialogante e comunicativa, ma spostarsi sempre più verso la parte poetica, perché la poesia è un monologo e quindi ti riduci nella parte del coro dove non puoi che lamentare la tragedia del mondo. Per questo la mia prosa è organizzata in senso ritmico, come se fossero dei versi16. Nottetempo, casa per casa è, in confronto al Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, più compatto, più chiuso in una sua forma ritmica, densa di significati e piuttosto ermetica. E continua: Ho voluto scrivere una tragedia — niente è più tragico della follia — con scene-capitoli, con intermezzi del coro, che sono le frequenti digressioni lirico-espressive in cui il narrante s’affaccia e commenta o fa eco in un tono più alto, più acceso. Perché questo compattare, perché l’eliminazione della scena del messaggero, dell’anghelos, del personaggio-autore che si rivolge agli spettatori-lettori e narra in termini non espressivi ma assolutamente comunicativi il fatto che è avvenuto altrove, in un altro tempo? 17 15 Cfr. L. Canali: Che schiaffo…, pp. 1, 19. 16 Intervista con Vincenzo Consolo. A cura di D. Marraffa e R. Corpaci. “Italialibri” 2001, www.italialibri.it (data di consultazione: il 28 dicembre 2006). 17 Ibidem.
Infatti, lo spunto questa volta è tragico; ma quell’antica ispirazione malinconica diventa antitetica, forse per reminiscenze classiche di simile allegoria a sfondo politico. E specialmente nella sua espressione contiene l’eco della giovinezza povera, triste, ma fiera e disperatamente fiduciosa. Sullo sfondo, per di più, è impossibile non intravedere la forza di questo progetto. La presa di posizione dello scrittore a favore della poesia potrebbe essere interpretata come un attacco a un preciso bersaglio critico. Se la scienza fornisce un’immagine del mondo in cui non c’è posto per le antiche credenze metafisiche, gli strumenti proposti attualmente si rivelano inutili, se non addirittura fuorvianti. L’obbligo di dare ragione Nati sul filo della conversazione del passato con il presente, i romanzi consoliani sono intessuti di quella curiosità intellettuale che si pone l’obiettivo di raccontare la realtà. Le narrazioni dello scrittore concorrono ad elaborare il comune problema delle vicende dell’uomo di cultura nel quadro della società odierna. Un compito arduo, tanto che molti scrittori di oggi assistono alla progressiva riduzione del proprio spazio in una società che vive accanto, al di fuori delle loro possibilità. Sembra concentrarsi all’efficacia di testimonianza e di verifica e alla partecipazione dell’individuo all’esistenza comunitaria. Secondo Grazia Cherchi “il narratore intellettuale del nostro tempo non ha altro scampo che la parodia”18, e l’autore è d’accordo con lei: lo scrivere in negativo, usare tutti gli abrasivi e corrosivi: l’ironia, il sarcasmo testimoniano il valore delle opere19. Consolo stesso ammette: 18 G. Cherchi: Mille e una notte. “L’Unità” 1987, il 11 novembre. 19
Come verrà verificato nelle analisi successive, Vincenzo Consolo valorizza la prospettiva intertestuale e la parodia come forma specifica di un dialogo tra i testi che è diventata una delle sue tecniche preferite a cui ricorre. Lo scrittore nella maggior parte dei casi realizza questo ‘dialogo’ intertestuale riprendendo la voce altrui e reinterpretandola antiteticamente rispetto al testo di origine. Cfr. M. Billi: Dialogo testuale e dialettica culturale. La parodia nel romanzo
Costruendo storie che erano una parodia della realtà, ma di una penetrazione e di una tale restituzione della verità che riuscivano ad anticipare lo svolgimento della realtà stessa, ad essere profetiche. La stessa cosa fece Pasolini, fuori della finzione letteraria, della parodia, con i suoi interventi sui giornali, con la forza dei suoi j’accuse, delle sue provocazioni e delle sue requisitorie, dei suoi Scritti corsari. Non li rimpiangeremo mai abbastanza questi due scrittori civili italiani. Nel mio pendolarismo tra la Sicilia e Milano c’è, prima di tutto, la mia vicenda umana, la mia storia di vita, che poi forse diventa vicenda intellettuale e letteraria 20. Questa coscienza estetica e letteraria nell’ambito della quale l’autore cerca di delineare la funzione e il significato delle componenti della cosiddetta “poetica negativa”21 si inscrive nella specificità della letteratura moderna. I protagonisti dei romanzi consoliani rappresentano un catalogo di atteggiamenti diversi orientati verso la lotta contro l’ingiustizia: l’angustia di Gioacchino Martinez ha accanimenti feroci: trovare un senso, placare un malessere, imboccare una “cerchia confidente”22, invece la presa di coscienza del Mandralisca, in realtà, manifesta la sua interna fecondità e incidenza a un livello diverso e anche più profondo 23. Prende così corpo una vicenda romanzesca non organicamente distesa ma articolata in alcuni episodi emblematici, funzionali del protagonista: un aristocratico di provincia, sincero ma cauto patriota, innamorato dell’arte e dell’archeologia, dedito soprattutto agli studi di erudizione scientifica. Proprio a costui accade di trovarsi spettatore degli eccidi di Alcara Li Fusi; ed è appunto la sua vocazione umanistica a consentirgli di capire la giustizia profonda contemporaneo di lingua inglese. In: Dialettiche della parodia. A cura di M. Bonafin. Alessandria, Edizioni dell’Orso, 1997, p. 213. 20 V. Consolo: La poesia e la storia. In: Gli spazi della diversità. Atti del Convegno Internazionale. Rinnovamento del codice narrativo in Italia dal 1945 al 1992. Leuven — Louvain-la-Neuve — Namur — Bruxelles, 3—8 maggio 1993. Vol. 2. A cura di S. Vanvolsem, F. Musarra, B. Van den Bossche. Roma, Bulzoni, 1995, pp. 583—586. 21 R. Nycz: Literatura jako trop rzeczywistości. Kraków, Universitas, 2001, p. 17. 22 G. Amoroso: Il notaio della Via Lattea…, pp. 464—467. 23 Cfr. G.C. Ferretti: L’intelligenza e follia…
che anima la rivolta contro una legge di oppressione 24. Degna di nota è, senza dubbio, l’attenzione alla dimensione simbolica dei contenuti narrativi riguardanti gli atteggiamenti dei protagonisti, aspetto che lo scrittore non trascura, data la sua conoscenza delle questioni letterarie non solo dell’età antica ma anche della moderna. Ma Consolo collega l’aspetto simbolico e reale del problema nella convinzione che la letteratura dovrebbe conoscere il mondo e dare ragione e nome ai disastri dei nostri tempi. E secondo Giulio Ferroni dovremmo essergli grati “di questi lumi che vengono a rischiarare il nostro tempo cupo e notturno, la nostra notte fantasmagorica e telematica”25. Anche nello studio del passato la curiosità ha un peso considerevole, tanto da costruire un originale canone. Secondo Andrea Zanzotto la narrazione in questo caso non è un soliloquio, è sempre un rivolgersi ai molti che sicuramente partecipano ad una passione; anzi è quasi una preghiera rivolta a non si sa chi o che cosa, mormorata e insistente, interrotta da pause legate ad un loro tempo musicale, e in essa pare si salvaguardi almeno l’unità dell’io, di ogni “io” minacciato dall’oscura follia che irrompe fin dal primo stralunante racconto 26. I romanzi consoliani danno degno compimento a un’attività vissuta all’insegna della convinzione basata sul senso di giustizia, confermando quanto fosse ancor viva e inappagata nel loro autore la naturale propensione a parlare al posto altrui, al posto degli oppressi perché estranei al mezzo linguistico usato negli strati acculturati, il quale, precisa Christophe Charle “non permette loro di esprimere le proprie ragioni, e nemmeno le proprie speranze e la propria disperazione”27. I romanzi di Consolo costituiscono una traversata dei luoghi dell’impostura e cioè delle istituzioni: chiesa, scuola, famiglia, amministrazioni della giustizia, partito. L’argomento ricorrente è quello di fare conti con le credenze imposte o che s’impongono. 24 Cfr. V. Spinazzola: Un discorso facile e difficile. “L’Unità” 1976, il 4 luglio. 25 G. Ferroni: La sconfitta della notte. “L’Unità” 1992, il 27 aprile. 26 Cfr. A. Zanzotto: Vincenzo Consolo: ‘Le pietre di Pantalica’. In: Scritti sulla letteratura. Aure e disincanti nel Novecento italiano. Vol. 2. A cura di G.M. Villalta. Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2001, pp. 308—310. 27 Per le idee di Consolo sull’impegno letterario si veda la sua introduzione a C. Charle: Letteratura e potere. Palermo, Sellerio, 1979.
Scrittore — testimone — osservatore Scrittore — testimone — osservatore Senza dubbio gli scritti di Consolo continuano a evidenziare la tensione fra l’autore e il testo, a sottolinearla, a tal punto che, tutta l’opera sembra apparire come una metafora dell’impossibilità di padroneggiare in modo assoluto del proprio testo. Questa inquietudine percorre l’opera di Consolo e unifica i suoi aspetti tematici. Se si scorrono i romanzi consoliani non si tarda ad accorgersi dei frutti dolceamari dell’esplorazione di larga parte della storia italiana. Nello sguardo mobile, accorto, pungente che lo scrittore volge al mondo contemporaneo c’è un relativismo prospettico, non nuovo nel suo pensiero, ma nutrito nello scrittore siciliano di affabile cultura e sostenuto da esperienze vissute. Nelle narrazioni di Consolo le funzioni di scrittore e di interprete si sono trovate accomunate nella medesima situazione. Non ci sono più le garanzie che consentono un’indipendenza e un’autenticità alle funzioni indicate o se sia possibile il ritorno ad un loro ruolo spirituale e umanistico. La diretta esperienza dei variegati costumi umani aiuta a comprendere la labilità dei parametri di giudizio. Consolo ha sempre agito come una memoria attenta e sensibile del passato che viene accostato agli avvenimenti più recenti di cui egli è testimone e interprete. In Nottetempo, casa per casa Consolo stabilisce implicitamente un nesso tra l’Italia degli anni Venti e quella degli anni Settanta, così come nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio tra il Risorgimento e gli anni Sessanta e nello Spasimo di Palermo tra gli anni Trenta e l’inizio degli anni Novanta, con le morti di Falcone e Borsellino. Rossend Arqués parla direttamente delle fasi storiche, tutte segnate da successive cadute della società isolana e continentale in un pozzo senza uscita e senza possibilità di riemersione 28. Ma è proprio la prospettiva questo fattore decisivo da cui si guarda alle opinioni degli uomini a mettere in crisi le false certezze. La testimonianza di Consolo ha un significato particolare se inserita nel 28 Cfr. R. Arqués: Teriomorfismo e malinconia. Una storia notturna della Sicilia: “Nottetempo, casa per casa” di Consolo. “Quaderns d’Italià” 2005, n. 10, p. 80. 48
coevo dibattito sull’identità della cultura moderna e l’importanza del contributo del passato. L’oggettività è per lo scrittore un’autentica misura dell’impegno, in letteratura come nelle belle arti, e discrimina la percezione fenomenica e i processi cognitivi sottolineando la dimensione “forte” della letteratura. Questa convinzione trova la sua conferma nella constatazione consoliana secondo la quale lo scrivere diventa un confronto con la materia viva e la materia morta. Lo scrittore non vuole esclusivamente accettare l’immagine convenzionale della realtà conservata nelle abitudini e nei rituali. Tale punto di vista determina l’obiettivo fondamentale che, secondo Consolo, si realizza solo nella scrittura come l’unica possibilità di testimonianza, di protesta, e persino di riscatto. L’artista, attraverso l’arte della parola, registra la realtà inafferrabile fino ai tempi odierni, mostrandone la forma e l’importanza. L’ibridazione dei generi e dei codici serve a moltiplicare i punti di vista. Uno sguardo nostalgico alla memoria dei linguaggi in via d’estinzione vuole sottolineare una relazione tra stabilità e movimento, tra parola e immagine, tra superficialità e profondità simbolica. Il segno distintivo di un vero artista è proprio la facoltà di cambiare la parola in un elemento più sostanziale, più tangibile. Dunque la scrittura per Consolo può assumere diverse funzioni, anche quella confortativa, come nel caso di Petro, protagonista del romanzo Nottetempo, casa per casa. “Uuuhhh…” ululò prostrato a terra “uuhh… uhm… um… umm… umm… umm…” e in quei suoni fondi, molli, desiderava perdersi, sciogliere la testa, il petto. Sentì come ogni volta di giungere a un limite, a una soglia estrema. Ove gli era dato ancora d’arrestarsi, ritornare indietro, di tenere vivo nella notte il lume, nella bufera. E s’aggrappò alle parole, ai nomi di cose vere, visibili, concrete. Scandì a voce alta: “Terra. Pietra. Sènia. Casa. Forno. Pane. Ulivo. Carrubo. Sommacco. Capra. Sale. Asino. Rocca. Tempio. Cisterna. Mura. Ficodindia. Pino. Palma. Castello. Cielo. Corvo. Gazza. Colomba. Fringuello. Nuvola. Sole. Arcobaleno…” scandì come a voler rinominare, ricreare il mondo. Ricominciare dal momento in cui nulla era accaduto, nulla perduto ancora, la vicenda si svolgea serena, sereno il tempo. N, 38—39
Scrittore — testimone — osservatore
Questo frammento parla del grido, o meglio dell’urlo della Sicilia dolente che soffre di un male antico, raccolto da sempre da Consolo, tenuto sempre dentro, prima fatto vedere, ora esploso irrimediabilmente, anche se momentaneamente stemperato, alla fine del frammento, da questo chiasmo “la vicenda si svolgea serena, sereno il tempo”29. L’espressione artistica che trova la realizzazione nella scrittura diventa nella narrativa consoliana la testimonianza di una realtà che non è più trasparente e che di conseguenza genera una sensazione di incertezza e di mancanza di stabilizzazione. Il conforto è sempre la scrittura: raccontare può essere cedimento, debolezza, mentre ritirarsi in se stesso e tacere forse più vale. È la parallela alla lontananza geografica che a Petro sembra essere necessaria per avere dentro sé la chiarezza del dolore, e per riuscire a raccontarne30. Una forte credenza nell’ordine nascosto dei valori rende la scrittura consoliana responsabile ed eticamente stabile. Grazie a questa denotazione assiologica delle sue narrazioni, Consolo viene considerato lo scrittore dei campi esclusi dalla realtà non solo storica ma anche presente. I momenti delle narrazioni che riflettono sulle vicende umane evocano la pluralità delle circostanze in cui si verificano diversi atti abusivi. Il ridimensionamento della dignità umana imposto dagli sconvolgenti avvenimenti degli ultimi due secoli è analizzato con lo sguardo limpido e disincantato dell’uomo di ragione: il permanere di una giustizia-fiducia insiste nel fatto stesso dello scrivere, che colma, secondo Andrea Zanzotto, fa spazio, fa riapparire radici e racconta di una realtà siciliana divenuta, nonostante le molte sue luci, sempre più emblematica di una delle più devastanti malattie della società e della storia31. Ma l’intellettuale che spoglia l’universo del fascino della sicurezza superficiale pare consapevole dell’irreparabile perdita delle “favole antiche”. Nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio il punto di vista narrante nonché la voce etico-politica sono affidati non ad un personaggio del popolo ma ad un nobile siciliano, il barone Enrico Pirajno di 29 C. Ternullo: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 56. 30 Cfr. S. Mazzarella: Dell’olivo e dell’olivastro…, p. 64. 31 Cfr. A. Zanzotto: Vincenzo Consolo…, pp. 308—310.
Mandralisca. Questi, pur essendo un aristocratico, non è “un pazzo allegro o un imbecille”, né tantomeno un intellettuale scettico e malinconico come, per esempio, il principe di Salina nel Gattopardo. Consolo polemizza idealmente con il modello proposto da Tomasi di una cultura “della crisi”. Flora Di Legami aggiunge che anche il barone di Mandralisca è animato da un criticismo smagato, ma non rinuncia alla fiducia in possibili trasformazioni sociali a favore degli oppressi32. Consolo, come autore moderno, è autonomo e il suo sapere non lo si può staccare dalle sue primarie condizioni linguistiche, culturali, empiriche e soggettive. Rendendosi conto delle conseguenze di questa dislocazione, lo scrittore cerca di stabilire il nesso tra il ruolo dell’intellettuale e l’importanza della cognizione. Rimanendo dunque ben conscio della varietà delle impressioni umane e della loro incongruenza Consolo, attraverso la narrazione dei fatti esclusi dalla versione ufficiale della storia del Risorgimento italiano, vuole mettere in rilievo l’importanza del fondamento gnoseologico e dei principi della conoscenza. Per precisare la definizione dell’atteggiamento ideologico di Consolo, vale la pena rievocare la constatazione di Linda Hutcheon che la sua “è una riscrittura consapevole e autoriflessiva della scrittura storiografica tradizionale”33. A ribadire questa sembra valido ricorrere a Vittorio Spinazzola che rievoca Consolo stesso: “Non siamo innocenti, questo è certo; si cerca di evitare, per quanto possibile, la malafede e la menzogna”. Sarebbe difficile non essere d’accordo con Sebastiano Addamo, che vede in Consolo la continuazione di una preminente direzione verso l’esterno, verso il mondo e l’uomo, dato che il suo punto di partenza è una fede disperata, “una fede a onta di tutto e nonostante tutto”34. Però è altrettanto vero che, anche se lo scrittore usa la terza persona per narrare, si immedesima con i suoi protagonisti parlando dei problemi del mondo attuale 35. 32 Cfr. F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, pp. 23—24. 33 Cfr. L. Hutcheon: A Poetics of Postmodernism, History, Fiction, Theory. London, Routledge, 1988. 34 S. Addamo: Linguaggio e barocco in Vincenzo Consolo. In: Idem: Oltre le figure. Palermo, Sellerio, 1989, pp. 121—125. 35 Ibidem.
In questa riflessione, oltre che un rifiuto alle deduzioni spesso ostentate dai critici di professione, vi è percepibile anche la fiducia nelle risorse della facoltà autocritica. Lo conferma la constatazione seguente di Vittorio Spinazzola, tale da indurre a un sensibile ottimismo sulla disponibilità emotiva degli intellettuali illuminati a schierarsi dalla parte del proletariato 36. Nella prosa consoliana vi è un aspetto edificante privo dell’amarezza provocatoria peculiare degli scrittori siciliani. Lo spostamento verso il Nord costituisce la condizione indispensabile dell’avventura culturale di Consolo, necessaria all’acquisizione e alla comunicazione del sapere. Il motivo dello spostamento nei suoi romanzi si rivela, allora, il luogo privilegiato per raccogliere testimonianze sulla relatività, l’incongruenza, la sproporzione, la fragilità delle categorie umane nel tempo circoscritto. Elena Germano osserva acutamente che la Sicilia rappresentata nel primo romanzo di Consolo, intitolato La ferita dell’aprile non è “una dimensione geografica: essa è soprattutto la dimensione morale che caratterizza l’esistenza dei personaggi di questa storia, che ne condiziona i rapporti con la realtà e le reazioni”37. Il relativismo prospettico in cui Consolo si mostra esperto non impedisce, dunque, di stabilire un rapporto fra le discordanze, perché dal parallelo e dalla comparazione nasce la curiosità, la conoscenza e la comprensione. I testi consoliani diventano strumenti della critica della modernità, delle sue illusioni e della cultura moderna. Tale poetica può riprendere la problematica dell’esperienza sia esteriore che interiore servendosi della metafora dello sguardo. L’osservazione dei costumi e degli stereotipi del carattere regionale si congiunge alla massima efficacia espressiva in alcuni frammenti della prosa consoliana. La pratica degli uomini, l’interesse per l’esplorazione e gli scambi si organizzano in sequenze collegate fra loro come nelle parti dedicate alle dolorose sorti dei protagonisti, e una ricca panoramica delle scoperte di diverse abitudini. Giusta 36 Cfr. V. Spinazzola: Un discorso facile e difficile… 37 E. Germano: Politica e Mezzogiorno, I, 2 (aprile—giugno 1964). In: A.M. Morace: Orbite novecentesche. Napoli, Edizioni Scolastiche Italiane, 2001, p. 193.
mente si accorge di questa caratteristica Elena Germano: “La seduzione della scrittura consoliana agisce soprattutto sull’aspetto visivo, gioca con l’immagine, lo stimolo ottico38”. Consolo pone al centro del suo secondo romanzo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, una rinnovata inchiesta sul rapporto potere— classi subalterne e sul conseguente nodo fra scrittura e oralità, che egli presenta come espressione di un divario sociale. Flora Di Legami constata addirittura che all’acutezza della ragione, esemplata metaforicamente nell’ironico sguardo dell’ignoto marinaio, il narratore affida il compito di denunciare le “imposture” della storia39. In un osservatore così acuto e aggiornato è forte la consapevolezza dell’integrazione esistente ormai fra i mondi diversi, tale da creare persino una certa conformità nell’atteggiamento mentale. Nel suo primo romanzo, La ferita dell’aprile lo sguardo memoriale del narratore e quello reale dell’adolescente che osserva e filtra la realtà degli adulti (con i suoi problemi e contrasti), conferiscono alla narrazione un timbro favoloso e insieme vivido40. Il mese di aprile, ferito e dolente, diventa metafora di una giovinezza difficile e sofferente. Questo espediente retorico della “natura che sente” non è originale, dato che l’hanno già adottato i romantici e poi, tra gli altri, Eliot a cui Consolo ha attinto direttamente41. L’obiettivo principale era quello di conserva
Si veda ad esempio il contributo già citato di Geerts sui sapori della cucina consoliana e i numerosi passi del romanzo dedicati ai piaceri culinari (fra l’altro, pp. 45, 51, 56—57). Cfr. W. Geerts: L’euforia a tavola. Su Vincenzo Consolo. In: Soavi sapori della cultura italiana. Atti del XIII Congresso dell’A.I.P.P., Verona/ Soave, 27—29 agosto 1998. Ed. B. Van den Bossche. Firenze, Cesati, 2000. 39 Cfr. F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 22. 40 Ibidem, p. 14. 41 Oltre al titolo del romanzo di debutto La ferita dell’aprile, pure nell’ultimo romanzo Lo spasimo di Palermo vi è evidente una forte presenza della poetica di T.S. Eliot: “Let us go then, You and I, / When the evening is spread out against the sky…” [Allora andiamo, tu ed io, Quando la sera si stende contro il cielo…] (T.S. Eliot: Il canto d’amore di J. Alfred Prufrock. In: Idem: Opere 1904.1939. Milano, Bompiani, 2001, pp. 277—285).
Consolo introduce, nell’originale inglese, il verso eliotiano alla fine del quinto capitolo del romanzo per mettere in rilievo la scomparsa di ogni speranza, la mancanza della ragione e la conclusione del nòstos (non vi mancano i riferimenti al capolavoro omerico), del ritorno alla terra di origine. 53 l’influsso della natura di cui parlava anche Walter Benjamin42. Tale esperienza poetica ammette il fenomeno della “reciprocità sensuale” e trasgredisce i limiti di una semplice antropomorfizzazione e tende a rovesciare la prospettiva e la percezione. L’uomo viene percepito da un punto di vista non più umano, tuttavia non “disumano”. Le descrizioni penetranti si realizzano grazie alla lingua che non parla ma guarda e con l’occhio ammassa diversi elementi componendone un mosaico variopinto. Angelo Guglielmi costata che i romanzi di Consolo assomigliano a una sorta di magazzino che non conserva esemplari scelti o in qualche modo preziosi ma semplici cose gravi di tutta la materialità del quotidiano43. A paragone di molte osservazioni di costume, sfruttate dallo scrittore per la sua indagine morale, non sono poche nei romanzi le descrizioni di paesaggi legati alla memoria autobiografica, come ad esempio quella presente nel romanzo intitolato Retablo che è un autentico elogio della Sicilia, terra di nascita dello scrittore. Questo testo è permeato dalla presenza di chi apprezza la bellezza e le sue rappresentazioni nelle arti figurative. La retorica dello sguardo, e in particolare lo sguardo del pittore, legge la realtà nel corso del viaggio. Il protagonista del romanzo è un pittore, che vede uomini, palazzi, rovine e paesaggi con spiccata sensibilità visiva e professionale. Dato che non si tratta di un pittore immaginario ma di uno dei più vivaci esponenti del surrealismo e della pittura metafisica e visionaria italiana contemporanea, Fabrizio Clerici, fatto rivivere indietro nel tempo, per virtù fantastorica, in un’età carica di accensioni barocche e romantiche, la narrazione assume una dimensione più verosimile44. Attento osservatore dei costumi, Consolo dedica un’ampia parte della sua narrazione alla riflessione sulla natura umana. piamento eseguito da Consolo tra il protagonista e la voce narrante interrompe il necessario distacco perché possa instillare l’autobiografia intellettuale nella finzione romanzesca. Cfr. W. Benjamin: O kilku motywach u Baudelaire’a. Przeł. B. Surowska. „Przegląd Humanistyczny” 1970, z. 6, p. 113. 43 Cfr. A. Guglielmi: A cuore freddo. “L’Ora” 1978, il 12 maggio. 44 Cfr. R. Ceserani: Vincenzo Consolo. Retablo. “Belfagor” [Firenze] 1988, anno XLIII, p. 233. 54
Mentre andavo, al vespero, per la strada Aragona, col mio passo spedito, sudato per il cammino lungo e per il peso grave delle bisacce, le campane della Magione sonarono l’Avemaria. M’impuntai e dissi l’orazione. Quando, alla croce, mi sentii chiamare: “Frate monaco, frate monaco, pigliate”. E vidi calare da una finestra un panaro con dentro ‘na pagnottella e un pugno di cerase. “Pe’ l’anima purgante del mio sposo”. Alzai gli occhi e vidi nel riquadro, ah, la mia sventura!, la donna che teneva la funicella del panaro e accanto una fanciulla di quindici o sedici anni, la mantellina a lutto sulla testa che lei fermava con graziosa mano sotto il mento. E gli occhi tenea bassi per vergogna, ma da sotto il velario delle ciglia fuggivan lampi d’un fuoco di smeraldo. Mai m’ero immaginato, mai avevo visto in vita mia, in carne o pittato, un angelo, un serafino come lei. R, 21 La descrizione del primo incontro del frate Isidoro con Rosalia assume caratteri antitetici e ugualmente positivi. Due sono le indicazioni che si possono trarre dal raffronto presentato nel frammento scelto. Da un lato, l’osservazione morale muove da una persuasa e matura consapevolezza delle contraddizioni e dei limiti dell’uomo. Il frate rimane assorto nelle preghiere e dedito alla sua vocazione fino al momento in cui vede, per un istante solo, una bellissima fanciulla. Le sue qualità riferite a quelle di un angelo rievocano un modo di paragonare peculiare per gli stilnovisti. Dall’altro, Consolo è portato a credere che le qualità morali si manifestino con maggiore chiarezza e in modo positivo solo nell’interazione sociale. L’abbandono del servizio spirituale a favore di quello secolare, mostra la figura di Isidoro nella sua umanistica pienezza. Se fra i romanzi si prendono in esame i momenti in cui si riflette sugli ambiti morali, sui sentimenti e sui comportamenti umani, s’impone con evidenza una costante significativa: il ricorso al linguaggio della pittura e a formule enciclopediche per esprimere i risultati dell’analisi etica. Il che, naturalmente, non stupisce in uno scrittore così intimamente permeato dalla forma mentis logica, ma indica quanto sia importante conservare uno sguardo limpido e rigoroso nell’osservare anche i fenomeni morali. Quanto più Consolo concepisce come ambigua, volubile e sfuggente la psiche umana, tanto più prova a definirla con l’aiuto di immagini semplici, essenziali, analitiche.
Si pensi al paragone fra le proprietà dell’elenco naturalistico e le facoltà dei fenomeni uditivi: “mare che valica il cancello”, visivi: “nel cielo appare la sfera d’opalina”, olfattivi: “spande odorosi fiati, olezzi” e infine tattili: “che m’ha punto, ahi!”, presenti nel brano seguente: Rosalia. Rosa e lia. Rosa che ha inebriato, rosa che ha confuso, rosa che ha sventato, rosa che ha róso, il mio cervello s’è mangiato. Rosa che non è rosa, rosa che è datura, gelsomino, bàlico e viola; rosa che è pomelia, magnolia, zàgara e cardenia. Poi il tramonto, al vespero, quando nel cielo appare la sfera d’opalina, e l’aere sfervora, cala misericordia di frescura e la brezza del mare valica il cancello del giardino, scorre fra colonnette e palme del chiostro in clausura, coglie, coinvolge, spande odorosi fiati, olezzi, distillati, balsami grommosi. Rosa che punto m’ha, ahi!, con la sua spina velenosa in su nel cuore. R, 17 A tale esigenza di chiarezza si presta particolarmente la struttura logico-espressiva dei paragoni, che è modello molto frequente nella narrativa di Consolo. Come nel caso del protagonista del romanzo intitolato Retablo, Fabrizio Clerici: la sconfinata facoltà visionaria, la capacità di fare esplodere attraverso lo strumento linguistico, ogni dato della realtà in fantasia diventa il mezzo diretto della rappresentazione della realtà45. “All’artista non rimane che guardare da lontano” — come afferma in Retablo don Gennaro, maestro di canto: “Stiamo ai margini, ai bordi della strada, guardiamo, esprimiamo, e talvolta con invidia, con nostalgia struggente allunghiamo la mano per toccare la vita che ci scorre per davanti” (R, 197). Non è la prima volta che Consolo sceglie un quadro per dare l’avvio a un romanzo: nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio si trattava di un dipinto di Antonello da Messina, qui, al centro della vicenda si trova il dipinto a scomparti, a scene, 45 Cfr. L. Sciascia: Cruciverba. Milano, Adelphi Edizioni, 1998, p. 43. 56
questo quadro delle meraviglie che incanta i popolani e che è poi una citazione da Cervantes. Come la parola stessa “retablo” suona misteriosamente, così anche i quadri dipinti da Fabrizio Clerici risultano misteriosi perché sembra che rappresentino sogni e incubi. In questo contesto bisogna essere d’accordo con Paolo Mauri, secondo cui, in effetti, il pittore diventa narratore di un’altra realtà46. Sotto lo splendore del clima barocco è molto visibile la trama drammatica dell’amore insoddisfatto. Basta affinare lo sguardo e osservare senza pregiudizi l’intreccio per comprendere le reali motivazioni dell’agire, le ragioni o i torti della morale. La scrittura per quadri, per scene successive, facilita all’occhio indagatore una penetrazione ai margini dei fatti che costituiscono la vera e propria prassi della narrazione. L’adottata da Consolo retorica dello sguardo viene rafforzata dal procedimento straniante. Nel frammento sopraccitato il richiamo all’atteggiamento distante enfatizza le inconciliabili: “invidia” e “nostalgia”. Sintomo delle ambivalenze radicate nella morale è anche l’uso disinteressato dell’espressione: “ai margini, ai bordi della strada”. La distanza che domina in questo caso il comportamento conduce a conseguenze paradossali: secondo la convinzione comune l’artista, e specialmente il pittore dovrebbe avvicinarsi all’oggetto, qui invece la meta risulta inafferrabile. Per questa ragione Consolo, studioso e appassionato divulgatore di pittura, cerca di conciliare le argomentazioni della “logica comune” con i procedimenti delle “arti figurative”, accreditando ad ambedue la propria fiducia. Invece nel quadro tracciato dal romanzo intitolato Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio la doppiezza della morale e l’inautenticità della vita risaltano con netta evidenza grazie all’espediente formale della sproporzione, nuovamente fondata sullo snodo del paragone nel frammento seguente: Entrò nello studio assieme a Interdonato e chiuse la porta dietro le spalle. […] “Sto solo attendento adesso a un’opera che riguarda la generale malacologia terrestre e fluviatile della Sicilia che da parecchio tempo m’impegna fino in fondo e mi procura 46 Cfr. P. Mauri: Consolo: sognando il passato. In: Idem: L’opera imminente. Diario di un critico. Torino, Einaudi, 1998.
affanno…” spiegò il Mandralisca buttandosi a sedere come stanco sopra la sedia dietro la scrivania. “E voi pensate, Mandralisca, che in questo momento siano tutti lì ad aspettare di sapere i fatti intimi e privati, delle scorze e delle bave, dei lumaconi siciliani?” “Non dico, non dico…” disse il Mandralisca un po’ ferito. “Ma io l’ho promesso, già da quindici anni, dal tempo della stampa della mia memoria sopra la malcologia delle Madonie…” “Ma Mandralisca, vi rendete conto di tutto quello che è successo in questi quindici anni e del momento che viviamo?” “Io non vi permetto!…” scattò il Mandralisca. SIM, 43 Al centro del dialogo, che procede in toni acri e pungenti, è il contrasto tra una cultura aristocratica e separata, “la malacologia terrestre e fluviatile”, di cui il barone siciliano si sentiva fiero e pago, e un’attualità di eventi (i moti risorgimentali del ’56 a Cefalù e poi l’insurrezione di Alcara nel ’60) rispetto ai quali non si poteva non prendere posizione. Qui la frase pronunciata dal barone si sostanzia di un paragone con la moderna ottica, per sottolineare l’illusorietà degli studi se rimangono distanti dalle questioni ordinarie della realtà. Al modello di necessità ed obbligo si affiancano alcune riflessioni di diverso tono, che correggono l’eccesso di autocritica del protagonista e incitano a seguire l’impulso delle passioni. L’inclinazione verso l’approfondimento del sapere e il fascino dell’avventura possono unirsi, in effetti, con l’attrazione per la giustizia e la dominazione della ragione. Attraverso il discorso del Mandralisca con l’Interdonato Consolo esibisce una convinzione morale rilevata dal rapido ammonimento e nello stesso tempo dalla domanda retorica. La lezione di Consolo va qui al di là dell’esempio stilistico: si tratta di un’affinità nell’indagare l’uomo con acume e ironia. Seguendo ottica adottata, con lo stesso spregiudicato realismo psicologico Consolo sostiene che nessun’azione è veramente pura, disinteressata e schietta allo sguardo di chi con la luce della mente vede addentro le cose. È il caso del padre di Petro, protagonista del romanzo Nottetempo, casa per casa sofferente di licantropia che attraverso questa forma di teriomorfismo rappresenta il dolore universale. Si spalancò la porta d’una casa e un ululare profondo, come di dolore crudo e senza scampo, il dolore del tempo, squarciò il silenzio di tutta la campagna. Un’ombra rotolò sotto la luna, tra i rovi e le rocce di calcare. Corse, uomo o bestia, come inseguito, assillato d’altre bestie o demoni invisibili. Ed eccitò col suo lamento, col suo latrar dolente, uccelli cani capre. Fu un concerto allor di pigolii di guaiti di belati quale al risveglio del mondo sull’aurora o al presentimento, per onde d’aria o il vibrare sommesso della terra, d’un diluvio rovinoso, d’un tremuoto. N, 6 Il padre del protagonista diventa vittima di forze incontrollabili causate da uno stato di depressione permanente e l’espressione terrificante del lato scuro della sua psiche viene accompagnato da una facoltà di ipersensibilità che gli permette di vedere e sentire le cose in un modo ben più profondo. Seguendo le ricerche di Julia Kristeva in merito, si può azzardare la constatazione che il depresso sia un osservatore lucido, che vigila notte e giorno sulle sue sventure e sui suoi malesseri, e l’ossessione di vigilanza lo lascia perennemente dissociato dalla sua vita affettiva nel corso dei periodi “normali” che separano gli attacchi melanconici47. Così assegnando allo sguardo un ruolo demiurgico, Consolo crede nell’efficacia dei buoni ammaestramenti e non dubita che il senso della vista possa indirizzare alla giusta percezione. Dall’accostamento fra morale e pittura risulta più chiara l’esigenza di consolidare la “purezza” e la “forza” di un’azione con la “libertà” e la “disinvoltura” della libera creazione. Un atteggiamento morale di natura può derivare da un’assidua applicazione che solo nell’uomo veramente abile si muta in una seconda natura. 47 Cfr. J. Kristeva: Sole nero. Depressione e melanconia. Milano, Feltrinelli, 1998, pp. 52—53
Il tema del viaggio è un contenuto della
realtà extratestuale e dell’immaginario (tanto dell’autore quanto del lettore)
che ritorna in opere diverse: si ripete dunque in forme riconoscibili pur
articolandosi ogni volta in modi irripetibili all’interno di costruzioni dotate
ognuna di una propria individualità. Questo contenuto può riguardare
personaggi, passioni, ambienti, eventi, immagini1 . Il viaggio è un evento. In
genere si tratta di un accadimento che coinvolge due o più persone: dopo un
percorso (di una di esse o di tutte, non importa), esse entrano in contatto fra
loro in modo volontario o involontario, programmato in partenza o del tutto
casuale2 . Nel 1993 Consolo ammette: I poli poi, per ragioni di vita e per
scelta ideologica, si sono allontanati, sono diventati Palermo e Milano. E
questi due poli mi hanno fatto essere, oltre che laconico, scrittore scisso,
dalla doppia anima, dal doppio accento. Ma forse no, forse allo storicismo del
vecchio mondo palermitano ho sostituito lo storicismo dell’attuale mondo
milanese3 . I lettori entrano nel mondo della narrazione consoliana attratti non
da questa frase tradizionale “C’era una volta” ma tramite un procedimento ben
diverso e cioè l’uso della congiunzione che apre la storia. E la chiarìa
scialba all’oriente, di là di Sant’Oliva e della Ferla, dall’imo sconfinato
della terra sorgeva nel vasto cielo, si spandeva — ogni astro, ogni tempo
rinasce alle scadenze, agli effimeri, ai perenti si negano i ritorni, siamo
figli del Crudele, pazienza. N, 5 E poi il tempo apre immensi spazi,
indifferenti, accresce le distanze, separa, costringe ai commiati — le braccia
lungo i fianchi, l’ombra prolissa, procede nel silenzio, crede che un altro gli
cammini accanto. SP, 11 Quando la voce del narratore inizia in questo modo, non
è difficile, come sostiene Remo Ceserani, “sospendere la sua vita normale, abbandonare
il mondo in cui scorre la sua vita e trasferirsi, se si sente attirato dalla voce
del narratore e dall’interesse delle vicende narrate […]”4 . Il lettore subito
sin dall’inizio ha impressione di affrontare la continuazione della storia già
raccontata. Consolo riesce a trasformare il passato, anche quello lontano, in
una realtà somigliante agli eventi presenti. Il ciclo della narrativa
consoliana ammette la rappresentazione della Sicilia in varie fasi della sua storia.
L’azione del romanzo Nottetempo3, casa per casa si svolge a Cefalù, negli anni
del sorgere del fascismo. Non è racconto di viaggio, o guida, tuttavia con un
viaggio si onclude. Qui Petro vive una sua educazione sentimentale, politica,
letteraria, scontando sulla propria pelle lo sforzo del rapporto con una realtà
che sfugge ad ogni razionalità, che si lascia dominare da quella “bestia
trionfante” che stravolge quel mondo, che sembra fargli perdere antichi
equilibri e antichi profumi, e trova nel fascismo la sua più compiuta
incarnazione5 . C’è il risentimento verso una patria perduta e le persone che
non si accorgono della perdita. E qui non si parla solo di un confine
siciliano, ma di un oggi che comprende anche altri luoghi. Certo, il discorso
della lingua è chiaro. Consolo ha sempre cercato di scrivere in un’altra lingua
ed è quello che ha sempre irritato i critici, il fatto di “uscire dai codici,
di disobbedire ai codici”6 .
Il viaggio di Nottetempo, casa per casa, è la fuga di Petro da un mondo nel
quale egli vede la civiltà in via di travolgimento e per il quale avverte ormai
odio, al punto da fargli maturare una condizione che egli non sa se, ed
eventualmente quando, vorrà modificare, e quando eventualmente (“Non so adesso”
dice, quasi come Fabrizio Clerici diceva dell’itinerario che avrebbe potuto
prendere l’ulteriore sua peregrinazione) perché le ragioni dell’odio sono per
lui diverse da quelle che muovono l’anarchico Schicchi, non politiche in senso stretto,
non di fazione: e tali ha scelto di mantenerle “in attesa che passi la bufera”,
senza fraintendimenti e perciò nello stesso esilio vivendo scostato da
Schicchi, nella cui prassi riconosce la stessa matrice che ha causato la sua
partenza, “la bestia dentro l’uomo che si scatena ed insorge, trascina nel
marasma, la bestia trionfante di quel tremendo tempo, della storia, che
partorisce orrori, sofferenze” (N, 170)7 . La partenza di Petro assume un
valore emblematico, e in realtà, diventa aterritoriale. 5 Il romanzo Nottetempo, casa per casa contiene
il numero maggiore di elementi raffiguranti la nozione di allontanamento:
l’allusione all’inespresso, alla ritrazione, al rischio dell’afasia, del
silenzio. Pervenuto in prossimità di Tunisi, rimasto solo sul ponte del
piroscafo, Petro lascia cadere in mare un libro che l’anarchico gli aveva posto
in mano per alimento politico, e pensa ad un suo quaderno, sentendo che,
“ritrovata calma, trovate le parole, il tono, la cadenza, avrebbe raccontato,
sciolto il grumo dentro, avrebbe dato ragione, nome a tutto quel dolore” (N,
171): un quaderno perciò egli porta con sé quale viatico dell’esilio, dove
potrà da lontano nominare il dolore, e perciò — comprendendolo — risolverlo, e
questo è tutto il corredo che la sua scelta presuppone8 . Il protagonista di
Nottetempo, casa per casa è un esiliato che rompe a un tratto la condizione di esilio
attraverso la scrittura, diversamente dagli altri, dal padre, ad esempio, che
non può farlo. Il libro si apre con una scena notturna in cui si disegna la
figura oggi rara della malinconia, desueta almeno, in cui la depressione si
svela nel rapporto con la luna piena: quella del licantropo. La cultura
popolare ci ha tramandato vari frammenti intessuti su questa figura, dominata
da un dolore insopportabile che equivale ad un esilio. Come dice l’epigrafe
della Kristeva posta all’inizio del libro, quel dolore equivale a vivere sotto
un sole nero, che può anche stare per l’immagine della luna. È un tentativo di
liberazione dell’angoscia attraverso l’animalità, la fuga, la corsa9 . La
coscienza del dolore proprio e altrui indica una prospettiva che rende
possibile la riflessione su un altra persona. La sofferenza non è qualcosa di
peggiore che richiede il rimandere nascosti. Al contrario, è necessario
prenderla in considerazione quando si vogliono determinare i limiti del potere
umano. Consolo, indicando la sofferenza come l’esperienza fondamentale
dell’esistenza, non si discosta dal discorso sempre più urgente sulla
condizione degli emarginati nel mondo postmoderno. Così Petro fugge, come
Consolo, e “spariva la sua terra mentre egli se ne andava (N, 168).
Petro è spinto da una parte dalla forza
irrazionale di un fascismo che prometteva giustizia e riscossa, specchietti
delle allodole delle dittature incipienti, dall’altra è attratto da quel
socialismo-anarchico la cui contestazione, però, gli appare violenta e
drasticamente tragica. Decide per una ”fuga”, che non è disimpegno, ma scelta
chiara, il che illustra la scena finale: “si ritrovò il libro dell’anarchico,
aprì le mani e lo lasciò cadere in mare” (N, 171). La marginalità del gesto,
tuttavia, non gli scongiura la necessità della fuga da Cefalù, dalla città che
aveva amato nelle cose e nelle persone, e che ora gli era caduta dal cuore “per
quello ch’era avvenuto, il sopravvenuto, il dominio che aveva presa la peggiore
gente, la più infame, l’ignoranza, la violenza, la caduta d’ogni usanza,
rispetto, pietà…” (N, 166); e perciò egli si spinge all’esilio in Tunisia, dove
si reca partendo nottetempo da Palermo, su di un vapore che pure nasconde il
capo anarchico Paolo Schicchi (altro personaggio reale)10. Anche Consolo,
quando si è trasferito a Milano aveva intenzione di raccontare quella Milano
dei contadini siciliani che diventano operai. Ben presto capì che per farlo
aveva bisogno della distanza della metafora storica. È quello che Cesare Segre
acutamente ha sottolineato come peculiarità del suo modo di scrivere: “è il
distanziamento, il bisogno di distanziarsi, anche geograficamente”11. Il motivo
del viaggio, nel primo lavoro: La ferita dell’aprile, si svolge sul doppio
versante del riportarsi all’indietro dell’io narrante al tempo della propria
adolescenza, e di un attraversamento di diversi piani linguistici alla ricerca
di uno stile che si conquista una propria misura espressiva12. E per restituire
alla storia il misterioso e l’ignorato che è nell’uomo e nella collettività,
Consolo sceglie fin da questo primo romanzo la dimensione della memoria e
l’idea del viaggio13. Il labirinto evidenzia cioè nella sua stessa forma
figurale, in quanto metafora assoluta che si sostanzia di un retroterra
religioso e mitologico, la struttura del congetturare dialettico, di quel
mirare alla fine 10 del processo ermeneutico come al proprio fine, implicito
nel viaggioverso-il-centro e nel viaggio-di-ritorno di Teseo come in tutte le
successive varianti del mitologema14. In appendice ai capitoli di più acuminato
spessore del suo romanzo, Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, Consolo ha inserito,
infatti, un ventaglio di documenti storici che fanno corpo organico con la
narrazione, esplicitando ciò che essa lascia nel margine dell’intuitivo. Aldo
M. Morace sostiene che così viene spezzata l’unità tipica del racconto storico,
ma anche la finzione narrativa stessa, in modo da chiamare in causa il lettore,
secondo l’esigenza brechtiana dello straniamento e secondo la suggestione
adorniana circa la necessità, per l’opera d’arte, di portare impresse nelle
proprie strutture formali le stigmate della negatività rinunciando alla forma
compatta ed armoniosa che attesterebbe la conciliazione con la società
esistente15. Se il romanzo, e in particolare il romanzo storico si esprime
attraverso le tensioni formali, come sostiene Flora Di Legami16, la prosa di
Consolo corrisponde pienamente a questa immagine. L’autore introduce,
trasformato, il topos ottocentesco del manoscritto: esso non è più l’espediente
narrativo su cui costruire la trama del romanzo, ma un documento immaginario
capace di suffragare, con la sua verosimiglianza linguistica, l’effettualità
degli avvenimenti narrati. E così il Mandralisca, mosso dall’ansia di
verificare le affermazioni dell’Interdonato, compie un viaggio in alcuni paesi
del messinese, che gli farà conoscere le condizioni di miseria e sfruttamento
in cui versano i contadini, ma soprattutto lo porterà ad essere testimone
diretto dell’insurrezione di Alcara contro i Borboni nel maggio 1860. Quello del
Mandralisca risulta un viaggio di tipo vittoriniano, di progressiva maturazione
e di crescita etico-politica, ma anche di discesa del nostro tempo. Interviste
a Leonardo Sciascia, Vincenzo Consolo, Gesualdo Bufalino, Ignazio Buttita, dal
programma radiofonico di Loredana Cacicia e Sergio Palumbo, prodotto e
trasmesso da Rai Sicilia nel 1991. Palermo, Officine Grafiche Riunite, 2013, p.
52. L’intellettuale
al caffé. Incontri con testimoni e interpreti all’interno
delle contraddizioni della storia e della ragione, di cui sperimenta
l’impotenza operativa17. Nel contesto della dominazione anche fisica delle
nuove forze — come prova di contrapposizione ad esse — appare anche il problema
delle riflessioni morali che espongono solo la dimensione degli abusi. Consolo
la rievoca tramite l’introduzione della situazione di caos: accanto alle forze
naziste spuntano le proteste degli operai, crescono l’incitazione intorno alla
Targa Florio e infine la sconfitta degli anarchisti. Questo caos viene
preceduto nella narrazione dal segnale riferito alla follia della famiglia
Marano, il che suggerisce la conseguente spirale della perdita di senno. Solo
la ragione si oppone al regime, al male atavico dell’uomo, alla distruzione
della memoria e dei valori della terra e della società18: Ora sembrava che un
terremoto grande avesse creato una frattura, aperto un vallo fra gli uomini e
il tempo, la realtà, che una smania, un assillo generale, spingesse ognuno
nella sfasatura, nella confusione, nell’insania. E corrompeva il linguaggio, stracangiava
le parole, il senso loro, il pane si faceva pena, la pasta peste, la pace pece,
il senno sonno. N, 140 Il linguaggio, trasgressivo e straniato, arcaicizzante e
artificioso, nasce da una spinta molto forte, così da richiedere una strategia
di difesa e di allontanamento, e una immersione nella vita “nel suo infinito
variare”. È un linguaggio che diviene canto, sonante e alto, fatto di cadenze e
ritmi poetici (per esempio, di ben individuabili, ossessivamente presenti,
endecasillabi: “E la chia-rì-a scial-ba all’- or-ien-te / di là di
Sant’-O-li-ve-del-la Fer-la”)19. Consolo ha spesso affermato di sentirsi parte
di una linea della letteratura italiana che proviene dalla Sicilia e che
comprende Verga, Pirandello, Vittorini, Brancati, Tomasi di Lampedusa,
Sciascia, ma nello stesso tempo ribadisce17 la provenienza da una zona
periferica d’Italia. La sua narrazione diventa la testimonianza della credenza
nella possibilità dei contributi innovativi alla cultura da quella isolana20. L’abbandono
della predominanza del senso della vista a favore dell’abilità del parlare
implica la riduzione della distanza rispetto all’oggetto dell’analisi. La
facoltà di parlare richiede la mancanza di dominazione e indica invece l’impegno
dei processi cognitivi nelle differenti prospettive degli interlocutori. La
Sicilia attraversata da Clerici è quella storica del primo Settecento, afflitta
da povertà, ignoranza e violenza; e tuttavia i vari paesi diventano contrade dell’anima
dove pensieri ed emozioni balzano in primo piano, e i personaggi incontrati
hanno sempre consistenza reale e favolosa, come i ladri delle terme segestane.
Sono luoghi in cui il narratore sospende il tempo della narrazione per
abbandonarsi all’incanto del mondo favoloso e lontano. Lo spazio sociale con i
suoi conflitti non è, in questo romanzo, il centro palpitante; lo percorre
invece una vibrata inquietudine ed un febbrile desiderio di lontananza21. Nel
romanzo Lo spasimo di Palermo l’autore legge una vicenda personale e
collettiva, partendo da un tempo che apre immensi spazi. In principio è la
lontananza, la terra straniera e il distacco che “costringe ai commiati”22. Nel
caso del protagonista del romanzo menzionato, lo scrittore Gioacchino Martinez,
cupo e angosciato eroe che vuole rappresentare la realtà senza incanto, che era
quello di un sogno infantile, e smuovere altri ricordi. Sono proprio i ricordi
che lo devastano e nello stesso tempo lo mantengono in vita: il protagonista torna
in Sicilia, da dove se ne era fuggito, per l’impossibilità di opporsi alla
violenza, all’ingiustizia. È un affondo nel rammarico, nei dolori della
memoria: l’adolescenza nel dopoguerra siciliano, l’amato zio studioso di
botanica, l’adorata Lucia che poi sposerà e perderà con strazio, il rifugio in
una Milano ritenuta proba, antitesi al ma
rasma 20, gli anni del terrorismo e la pena per il figlio compromesso. Piero Gelli parla direttamente del risveglio di un’illusione: la città civile di Porta, Verri e Beccaria, di Gadda e Montale non esiste più, sommersa dalle acque infette dell’intolleranza e dalla melma della corruzione23. Se si prende per esempio la descrizione dell’albergo che sebbene non sia un luogo sotterraneo, rivela tutta la sua angustia: “La dixième muse era il nome dell’albergo. L’angusto ingresso, il buio corridoio…” (SP, 11). Spostandosi all’indietro nei ricordi assomigliava ai rifugi antiaerei o alle cantine. Dopo il bombardamento all’oratorio Chino ”tornò affannato nell’androne, attraversò il cavedio, discese nel catoio” (SP, 16). È significativo anche che cupi, nascosti ed in profondità siano i luoghi in cui si consuma la relazione fra il padre di Gioacchino e la siracusana. Quindi colpa e menzogna da cui Chino fugge sempre, in modo antonimico, seguendo il percorso contrario, verso la luce e la superficie. È la fuga da una realtà che non vuole conoscere. Una tana sarà anche il luogo prediletto dal ragazzo per i suoi giochi e le sue fughe: “Corse al marabutto, al rifugio incognito e sepolto dal terriccio” (SP, 19). A un certo momento del libro il protagonista parla così: “Non so adesso… Adesso odio il paese, l’isola, odio questa nazione disonorata, il governo criminale, la gentaglia che lo vuole… odio finanche la lingua che si parla”. Mai come adesso la scrittura si ritaglia come il luogo di una distanza difficilmente colmabile in cui non ci sono luoghi cui dedicare una presunta fedeltà: “Dietro queste parole scopertamente riferite all’oggi c’è il risentimento personale di chi scrive verso un luogo che ha dovuto lasciare”24. Una soluzione più simile al concetto di viaggio si può da ricavare nel romanzo Retablo. La seconda sezione del libro, quella centrale o la più distesa, è il diario di viaggio che Clerici scrive per Teresa Blasco, la donna amata, da cui cerca di allontanarsi compiendo la sua “peregrinazione” attraverso la Sicilia. È solo attraverso il “collaudato23 contravveleno della distanza”, infatti, che Clerici riesce a ritrovare quell’“aura irreale o trasognata” che gli consente di dedicarsi alla scrittura e alla pittura (R, 87). E per ottenere il necessario estraniamento, analogo a quello operato dallo scrittore di Sant’Agata di Militello con il trasferimento a Milano, fungono spesso da testimoni o il cavaliere e l’artista lombardo Clerici, o il mistificatore inglese: Crowley. Lo stile barocco, fitto di sicilianismi, fornisce il coinvolgente e inconfondibile colore locale25.
Title: Rompere il silenzio : i romanzi di Vincenzo Consolo Author: Aneta Chmiel Citation style: Chmiel Aneta. (2015). Rompere il silenzio : i romanzi di Vincenzo Consolo. Katowice : Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.
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1 F. Orlando: Costanti tematiche, varianti estetiche e precedenti storici. In: M. Praz: La carne, la morte e il diavolo nella letteratura romantica. Firenze, Sansoni, 2003 [1996], p. VII. 2 R. Luperini: L’incontro e il caso. Narrazioni moderne e destino dell’uomo occidentale. Roma—Bari, Editori Laterza, 2007, pp. 4—8. 168 Capitolo V: L’allontanamento V. Consolo: La poesia e la storia. In: Gli spazi della diversita. Atti del Convegno Internazionale. Rinnovamento del codice narrativo in Italia dal 1945 al 1992. Leuven —Louvain-la Neuve—Namur—Bruxelles, 3—8 maggio 1993. Vol. 2. A cura di S. Vanvolsem, F. Musarra, B. Van den Bossche. Roma, Bulzoni, 1995, pp. 583— 586.4 A. Bernardelli, R. Ceserani: Il testo narrativo. Istruzioni per la lettura e l’interpretazione. Bologna, Il Mulino, 2013, p. 135. Il viaggio o la fuga? 169 G. Ferroni: La sconfitta della notte. “L’Unità” 1992, il 27 aprile. 6 R. Andò: Vincenzo Consolo: La follia, l’indignazione, la scrittura. “Nuove Effemeridi” 1995, n. 29, p. 11. 7 S. Mazzarella: Dell’olivo e dell’olivastro, ossia d’un viaggiatore. “Nuove Effemeridi” 1995, n. 29, p. 63. 170 Capitolo V: ” (N, 168). Petro è spinto da una parte dalla for8 Ibidem, pp. 63—64. 9 R. Andò: Vincenzo Consolo…, pp. 8—9. S. Mazzarella: Dell’olivo e dell’olivastro…, pp. 62—63. 11 V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna. La Sicilia e Milano, la memoria e la storia. Roma, Donzelli editore, pp. 9—10. 12 F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo. La figura e l’opera. Marina di Patti, Pungitopo, 1990, p. 12. 13 Ibidem, pp. 7—9. 172 Capitolo V: , 14 Cfr. K. Kerényi: Nel labirinto. Torino, Bollati Boringhieri, 1983, p. 9. 15 Cfr. A.M. Morace: Orbite novecentesche. Napoli, Edizioni Scolastiche Italiane, 2001, pp. 212—213. 16 Cfr. F. Di Legami: Cfr. F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, pp. 24—25. 18 Cfr. C. Ternullo: Vincenzo Consolo: dalla Ferita allo Spasimo. Catania, Prova d’Autore, 1998, p. 58. 19 R. Ceserani: Vincenzo Consolo. “Retablo”. “Belfagor” 1988, anno XLIII, Leo S. Olschki, Firenze, pp. 233 — 234. 174 Capitolo V: L’allontanamento cfr. A. Bartalucci: L’orrore e l’attesa. Intervista a Vincenzo Consolo. “Allegoria. Rivista quadrimestrale” 2000, anno XII, nn. 34—35, gennaio—agosto, 21 Cfr. F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 40. 22 G. Amoroso: Il notaio della Via Lattea. Narrativa italiana 1996—1998. Caltanisetta—Roma, Salvatore Sciascia Editore, 2000, p. 464. Cfr. P. Gelli: Epitaffio per un Inferno. La rabbia e la speranza di Consolo. “L’Unità” 1998, il 12 ottobre, p. 3. 24 R. Andò: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 11.
— Penso che vincere un premio come lo Strega possa essere, per uno scrittore serio, un’assicurazione contro i faccendoni, e il dilagare della carta. — La carta seppellisce i libri. Una volta gli scrittori lavoravano con la speranza nel futuro1 . Senza troppa esagerazione si può affermare che il tono essenziale della prosa consoliana rimane soprattutto riflessivo e didascalico. E se con questo ci si vuole riferire ad una remota disposizione che si ripresenti nelle opere degli scrittori siciliani, e cioè, una ricorrenza di quella peculiarità, nominata da Leonardo Sciascia una “specie di follia”. In questa zona discorsiva, acquista un rilievo massimo la figura di Luigi Pirandello atteggiata nell’argomentativo e sofistico ritmo di un ragionatore e di un maestro tutto volto a spiegare e insegnare. Ma questa razionalizzante sicilitudine non è da credere che s’aggiri in una forma di cattedratica istruzione o di astratta lezione2 . Al contrario, la meditazione svolta dell’autore, pur nei confini dello schema prestabilito si avvia di acute analisi e di fini notazioni psicologiche 1 F. Parazzoli: Il gioco del mondo. Dialoghi sulla vita, i sogni, le memorie […]. Cinisello Balsamo, Edizioni San Paolo, 1998, p. 23. 2 Cfr. M. Tropea: Nomi, „ethos”, follia negli scrittori siciliani tra Ottocento e Novecento. Caltanissetta, Edizioni Lussografica, 2000, p. 5. essenza della sicilitudine che superano i consueti limiti del comune repertorio morale. Pirandello, nel modo più autonomo, è riuscito a collegare i motivi siciliani come: mania, follia e superstizioni e grandi temi dello smarrimento dell’animo dell’uomo. Si potrebbe dire, a titolo non solo di paradosso, che lo scrittore avverta la presenza della conoscenza della vita nella totalità dei suoi aspetti come il frutto di un’esperienza non gradita e tendenzialmente rifiutata. Invece la liberazione dei sentimenti e dell’invenzione dal peso del reale presuppone un’intensa partecipazione ad esso, non un rifiuto, non un esilio, ma un’accettazione contrastata e difficile. Ad una maggiore immediatezza d’espressione si torna con l’esperienza di Vitalino Brancati che distingue la cultura della Sicilia in due grandi suddivisioni: “[…] quella occidentale degli arabi, dei cavilli, delle sottigliezze, della malinconia, di Pirandello e di Giovanni Gentile e dei mosaici; e quella orientale dei Fenici, dei Greci, della poesia, della musica, del commercio, dell’inganno, di Stesicoro, Verga, Bellini, San Giuliano”3 . Con le opere di Brancati si rimane sempre nella stessa dimensione della poesia invasa dalla follia che forma la peculiarità dell’anima e della cultura siciliana. Secondo Mario Tropea l’esistenza di una “letteratura siciliana” costituisce una figurazione di una insularità affermata non solamente dal punto di vista storico e antropologico. Nella sua sostanza si conferma una tonalità narrativa della psicologia umana4 . Allo sguardo satirico di Brancati, l’universo siciliano non appare come lo spazio di cui celebrare il fasto, né tanto meno la sede in cui si elaborano progetti politici; esso diviene piuttosto il bersaglio privilegiato di un processo di smascheramento, teso a mettere a nudo l’incapacità dei rappresentanti del potere, l’interesse dei cittadini e il loro stato di umiliante soggezione. In questo senso appare emblematico il punto di vista di Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, pieno d’ironia, pensata come sintesi di distacco aristocratico. Forse ha capito che allo scrittore non si chiede più l’eroismo di una classe feudale, ma la naturale mutevolezza di caratteri osservati nella 3 Ibidem, p. 6. 4 Cfr. ibidem. realtà quotidiana. L’ottica dall’interno con cui il mondo della Sicilia è narrato compare nella presenza di nozioni dell’ironia e della storia. L’isola ha una sua storia che la genera e rigenera. Nella scelta di una narrazione mimetica l’insularità diventa una proprietà imprescindibile. Consolo non inventerebbe l’isola se non vi fosse venuto al mondo, se nella vita, nella scrittura non fosse venuto incontro ad esso e se non l’avesse raccontato tramite le vicissitudini dei compaesani. Pubblicando i suoi scritti, Consolo ha salvato dall’oblio inerente all’oralità le storie dolorose e fragili. Sembra che, simbolicamente, lo scrittore abbia saldato un debito nei confronti degli interlocutori del paese natio. Non si tratta, in questa analisi, di propugnare uno scavalcamento delle gerarchie né di rinnegare gli interessi degli scrittori; invano si cercherebbe in queste opere un progetto di riforma della società in base a nuovi valori. Mondo insulare e mondo della penisola sembrano impermeabili. Eclettico Capuana non tanto lontano dalla realtà del naturalismo di Verga rappresenta la follia proprio tramite uno studio “clinico”. Nella poetica che sembra quella di un generico realismo, Consolo varca la soglia della finzione e recupera le forme testuali della verità quasi documentaria: struttura e tono del reportage, appendici forniti dalla storia, narrazione in terza persona. Un’idea di narrazione polimorfica potrebbe risultare una necessità di inquadrarsi all’interno di una prospettiva di moderno umanesimo delle contraddizioni. Ferruccio Parazzoli ha ammesso di sentirsi come Ismaele — il protagonista di Moby Dick. Invece, però di andarsene per mare, lo studioso si accontenta di svolgere la ricerca tra gli amici5 . In Mondadori, la sua casa editrice, Consolo viene considerato uno dei più ascoltati scrittori italiani. “Quando dice fa opinione” — ricorda Parazzoli6 . Se lo scrittore si riferisce alla quotidianità politica, lo fa direttamente come nella constatazione rapportata alla situazione del settembre del 1994: “Io credo che chi ci governa sia affetto da una grave malattia mentale. […] Tutti i suoi gesti, tutte le sue azioni, tutti 5 Cfr. F. Parazzoli: Il gioco del mondo…, p. 54. 6 Ibidem. gli ordini, tutto quanto lui dispone è all’insegna dell’irrazionalità e della follia”7 . Prendendo le mosse dal mito sul Cavallo inventato da Ulisse, Consolo cerca di individuare un’ipotesi fondamentale dell’illusione vissuta dall’Italia dopo la seconda guerra mondiale; l’illusione dell’Itaca e cioè dell’armonia, della storia e degli affetti. Dopo le tragedie subite c’era bisogno di razionalità e di ordine che potevano essere visti come tappe di un possibile recupero della ragione. Va poi sottolineato, sul piano delle corrispondenze fra la ragione e la follia che questa oscillazione è diventata una costante della storia dell’Italia. Consolo dichiara decisamente il desiderio di testimoniare il senso storico del suo tempo. In questo caso la testimonianza riguardante la situazione del paese è un espediente narrativo esemplare della tecnica della trasformazione che si gioca su capovolgimenti. La generazione di Consolo ha conosciuto un mondo che era la civiltà contadina è che poi ha cominciato a sostituire la vita con le cose, con la merce. In conseguenza è accaduto lo spostamento della centralità dell’essere e la sua sostituzione con l’avere. La rapidità di questo processo ha lesionato anche le altre sfere dell’attività umana. Secondo Consolo il movimento delle masse contadine ha portato alla distruzione della cultura popolare. Anche un discorso svolto dallo scrittore sui colpevoli di questo stato di cose indica chiaramente i politici un primo luogo e poi gli intellettuali. Questa idea di responsabilità sopravvive nella coscienza letteraria consoliana, specialmente quanto il narratore sottolinea la propria provenienza siciliana. In questo paesaggio dell’Italia corrotta e arrettrata, Milano è cominciata ad essere considerata come la città dell’utopia, senza sopraffazione e violenza. Non è quindi per un caso nemmeno da questo punto di vista, in fondo, che Vincenzo Consolo come Verga e Vittorini, approdì a Milano. Con il passare di tempo nasce la delusione. La cosa da notare subito è la convinzione di Consolo della responsabilità maggiore della Milano moderna, siccome più dotata nel campo di lavoro e di cultura, della digradazione e dell’avvilimento. 7 Ibidem, p. 25. Si capisce ancora meglio, così, perché sia proprio quest’inclinazione a renderci più coscienziosi e più sensibili ai problemi della realtà circostante. Esaminando il percorso dello sviluppo del romanzo politico, Consolo pronuncia apertamente la sfortuna di Sciascia e di Pasolini. Il primo è stato dimenticato, il secondo invece, è stato imbalsamato in una nicchia di santità laica. Nelle sue narrazioni ci si rivolge come un’ultima volta a uno spazio e a un tempo che stanno per svanire definitivamente. Attingendo ai maestri come Verga, Pirandello, Vittorini, Consolo vuole mettere in evidenza una realtà che si può raccontare. Non consumata dall’informazione, dalla televisione o dai giornali ma capace di far sopportare e di capire la realtà. Una delle caratteristiche di questo modo robusto di narrare è quel ricorso frequente alla parola “armonia” che è diventata una parola chiave nel suo vocabolario di scrittore. Si scopre così che, correntemente alla sua essenza patetica, questa parola, come specchio e rappresentazione dello sguardo che lo affronta, può diventare un espediente che renderà più facile il conciliarsi con la vita e con la realtà. È altrettanto importante mettere in evidenza un’altra costante della produzione letteraria consoliana e cioè, la volontà di decifrare un passato remoto. L’atteggiamento di protesta contro la dissacrazione del nostro tempo. Gli elementi della materia che diventano veri e propri protagonisti della memoria di Consolo sono tra l’altro: le pietre, le piante e il mare. La loro capacità di ipostatizzare lo sguardo che li contempla e di oggettivarlo in una forma visibile, non si trasforma mai in pura contemplazione ma cambia nell’esperienza interiore. La memoria del mondo ormai dimenticato e trascurato diventa anche il modo per salvarlo. Con questo espediente lo scrittore vuole opporsi al senso della precarietà del mondo moderno. Nella prefazione al saggio di Basilio Reale lo scrittore constata: Ho sempre pensato la letteratura siciliana (e non solo la letteratura, ma la pittura, la scultura, la musica: l’arte insomma) svolgersi su due crinali, su due filoni o temi distinti: quello della storia e quello dell’esistenza (o della natura, o del mito)8 . 8 V. Consolo: Prefazione. In: B. Reale: Sirene siciliane. L’anima esiliata in “Lighea” di Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa. Bergamo, Moretti & Vitali Editori, 2001, p. 15. La memoria di quel mondo viene conservata anche nella dimensione di fuga dal paese. La fuga che è possibile forse solo in letteratura. La letteratura come possibilità di staccarsi dalla Sicilia, pur restando in Sicilia: l’esilio dall’interno. Molto legato ai valori come l’orgoglio, l’umiltà e il pudore, Consolo constata che la mancanza di pudore che ormai fa parte di ogni settore dell’attività umana, lo disorienta e offende. La paragona a una forma di violenza, come nei teatri anatomici quando si squadernavano i corpi. Parlando dell’importanza della memoria, lo scrittore rievoca la testimonianza di Pirandello, vissuta a circa due anni e legata ad un’eclisse solare che diventa un autentico archetipo della scrittura pirandelliana e un’ipostasi che è presente anche nella narrativa di Consolo9 . La prova di ricostruire questa memoria storica riguarda un mondo in cui la memoria sta per annullarsi. Ne rimangono solo delle apparenze e degli stereotipi. Per salvare questa realtà acquisisce soprattutto una forza dell’espressione linguistica, il richiamo alla lingua: unico segno realmente distintivo e significativo di appropriazione del mondo nelle possibilità di narrarlo, il che vuol dire per Consolo di ricrearlo narrativamente. Non a caso Giulio Ferroni riconosce allo scrittore il merito di essersi mosso alla ricerca di un linguaggio capace di unire in sé “la curiosità storica e razionale di Sciascia e il violento plurilinguismo di Gadda”10. Per Consolo la forza stilistica e inventiva diventa simbolo dell’aspirazione barocca a inglobare i diversi aspetti del reale in un complesso eterogeneo, ma organizzato. Le stesse ansie e inquietudini che, come si è visto, stanno a fondamento della ricerca dello scrittore siciliano, permeano altrettanto la prosa di diversi autori legati alla loro terra, alla loro regione, al loro quartiere. Il rapporto con il nichilismo del Novecento, la crisi di valori, la redifinizione dell’identità, i temi fondamentali non solo dell’opera di Consolo non solo hanno volto l’attenzione di molti su 9 Consolo, questa prosa, la nomina “la memoria di un’eclisse”, cfr. F. Parazzoli: Il gioco del mondo…, p. 29. 10 G. Ferroni: Storia della letteratura italiana. Milano, Einaudi, 1991, p. 129. questi problemi ma sono anche stati oggetto di analisi di vari critici11. Joanna Ugniewska, nella parte conclusiva del saggio di Matteo Collura ci ricorda che l’autore, attingendo al modello vittoriniano del viaggio orientato verso i luoghi dell’isola d’infanzia e di origine, definisce la propria narrazione come il percorso verso luoghi dove la memoria è stata imprigionata12. Nel corso del Novecento la critica aveva riesaminato con accenti più serrati il ruolo degli autori siciliani. Alcuni di loro come Elio Vittorini e Leonardo Sciascia e un po’ più tardi Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa sono stati premiati con il Nobel per la letteratura, gli altri hanno goduto un notevole successo editoriale. Nel quadro di questo pensiero siciliano non sarà luogo d’azione a sancirne il suo carattere originale. È vero che le narrazioni consoliane sono ambientate nella Sicilia, ma accade che le opere degli autori rievocati presentino i contesti geografici più neutri e generici. Da questo punto di vista, dunque, la provenienza potrebbe risultare un mero dato anagrafico. Ma in effetti la personalità consoliana era lungi dal limitarsi a tale rapporto tra la terra di nascita e le scelte future, tra l’aspirazione e i contrasti della vita, rapporto in certo modo risolto nella posizione dello scrittore di estrema apertura verso il reale, quale era propria di una scrittura che avverte in sé il continuo bisogno di nuovi orizzonti e di nuove situazioni. Se si volesse configurare la letteratura d’arte come perenne conflitto di “rappresentazione” e di “intellettualità”, si dovrebbe tornare mentalmente allo Stilnovismo, ma la presenza del momento intellettualistico è percepibile anche nell’arte moderna. Nel suo saggio dedicato agli scrittori siciliani del Novecento, Massimo Naro constata che l’atteggiamento intellettuale degli scrittori isolani si innesta sulla loro provenienza, non solo nel senso anagrafico o geografico, ma molto più profondamente, con le implicazioni etiche come antichi modi 11 Cfr. G. Pellegrino: Lotta, memoria e responsabilità: Eraldo Affinati. In: Scrittori in corso. Osservazioni sul racconto contemporaneo. A cura di L.A. Giuliani, G. Lo Castro. Soveria Mannelli, Rubbettino, 2012, p. 155. 12 Cfr. M. Collura: Na Sycylii. Przeł. J. Ugniewska. Warszawa, Fundacja Zeszytów Literackich, 2013, p. 158. di percepire il mondo a partire dalla terra di nascita13. L’esperienza siciliana diventa una specie di prospettiva nella quale gli autori contrappongono l’isola ad ogni terraferma. Più netti sono i contorni dell’isola, più il mondo fa da sfondo, diventa il miraggio. Così, quando lo sguardo degli scrittori entra “dentro” l’isola, la descrizione della concretezza fisica dello spazio non perde mai di vista gli elementi “strutturali” della Sicilia stessa. Una concretezza descrittiva che non trascura la peculiarità funzionale di questa scrittura, di esprimerne la gratitudine e la nostalgia. Questa caratteristica dell’ottica siciliana viene confermata fortemente nell’analisi del titolo dell’opera di Antonio Di Grado Finis Siciliae14 svolta da Anna Tylusińska-Kowalska nella parte introduttiva al volume dedicato alla produzione artistica di Leonardo Sciascia, Gesualdo Bufalino, Vincenzo Consolo, Luisa Adorno e Matteo Collura15. Nel commentare il titolo del libro citato del Di Grado e il contenuto del proprio volume, la studiosa sottolinea la funzione del diversificato paesaggio siciliano da cui scaturisce il mito della tradizione, del legame con la terra di nascita e della storia non sempre felice. Pirandello ha già definito le caratteristiche di questa specie di ottica, usando il termine “raziocinare” per questo modo di esaminare: volutamente più lento, più pacato, meno calcolante e più poetico, ma sempre capace di focalizzare l’attenzione sulle questioni problematiche e urgenti del tempo. Le cose hanno un volto diverso nel senso che qui sono appunto gli scrittori a porsi delle domande che nelle altre parti del mondo si pongono dei filosofi: sull’esistenza, sulla verità, sulla giustizia e sul potere. Gli echi dello stesso dibattito sorgono nei pensieri di Gesualdo Bufalino che si chiedeva se ciò che l’uomo sperimenta sia conclusivo o provvisorio, reale o illusorio? Nelle sue 13 Cfr. Sub specie typographica. Domande radicali negli scrittori siciliani del Novecento. A cura di M. Naro. Caltanissetta—Roma, Salvatore Sciascia Editore, 2003, p. 6. 14 A. Di Grado: Finis Siciliae. Scrittura nell’isola tra resistenza e resa. Acireale— Roma, Bonanno, 2005. 15 Cfr. Literacki pejzaż Sycylii. Leonardo Sciascia, Gesualdo Bufalino, Vincenzo Consolo, Luisa Adorno, Matteo Collura. Red. A. Tylusińska-Kowalska. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo DiG, 2011, p. 9. opere l’isola diventa metafora della teatralizzazione della vita16. Vale ancora aggiungere che nella sua ricerca appare chiara la volontà di valutare questa “qualità interrogante” della letteratura siciliana. Questo capitolo, di carattere esclusivamente introduttivo, si limita a considerare alcuni nomi e testi esemplari di questa lunga e complessa storia letteraria. La problematicità della letteratura siciliana si comprende nell’antirazionalità della poesia di Bartolo Cattafi, nell’opposizione tra certezza e dubbio nei libri di Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, nella contrapposizione tra fede e follia nei testi di Lucio Piccolo e Carmelo Samonà nella rappresentazione della dignità umana nelle opere di Elio Vittorini, nella ricerca del senso della vita in Francesco Lanza o in Nino Savarese, nella felicità perduta in Ercole Patti, nel nichilismo esistenziale in Sebastiano Addamo, nel dramma dell’emigrazione nella poesia di Stefano Vilardo, nell’impegno intellettuale di Vincenzo Consolo, nella protesta contro le violenze quotidiane di Dacia Maraini, nell’angoscia esistenziale nella narrativa di Gianni Riotta, Giosuè Calaciura e Roberto Alajmo. Consolo si realizza nella sua coscienza dell’intellettuale, egli misura costantemente la propria sorte d’uomo di cultura. Allude in questo modo alla tradizione l’iniziatore della quale viene considerato Dante — il primo intellettuale in senso moderno. Il sapere ritrovato è tutto orientato in senso “morale” e la reintegrazione della cultura nel destino dell’uomo segno un punto fermo nella storia della civiltà letteraria17. La caratteristica che unisce ambedue i personaggi è la coscienza “militante”. Alla letteratura siciliana è stato quindi assegnato il privilegio di colmare un ritardo, a sua volta necessario per riflettere sul valore e sulla ragione dell’esistenza umana. Giulio Ferroni denuncia la tendenza ad apparizione degli scrittori impegnati su altri terreni. Lo scrittore si pone cioè di fronte a un mondo passato e la sua continuità nel mondo postmoderno con gli strumenti mentali e catalogatori con cui aveva sempre osservato la 16 Cfr. J. Ugniewska: O zaletach peryferyjności, czyli jak można być Sycylijczykiem. W: Literacki pejzaż Sycylii…, p. 37. 17 Cfr. S. Battaglia: Mitografia del personaggio. Milano, Rizzoli Editore, 1968, p. 516. resistenza della Sicilia continuamente decrescente18. Di qui il richiamo ad un rapporto difficile ma molto efficace tra memoria storica e ricerca linguistica, alle quali Consolo riconosce di essere “a livello d’indagine”. Un “livello” situato evidentemente nell’aver stabilito un nuovo rapporto con la realtà in cui appaiono mutati i fattori stessi del passato. Alla narrativa ha assegnato il dovere di confrontare la violenza del passato e quella del presente e provare la presenza della stessa continuità di un modo di soffrire e di cercare la via di salvezza. L’interesse per questi scrittori, che, con precisa terminologia, sono stati definiti siciliani, non è un fatto recente, ma ancora in fase di sistemazione critica. Nell’ottica della ricezione che esprime l’orizzonte dell’opera letteraria, si scorge negli scrittori siciliani la coscienza di un dramma e di un dissidio psicologico e quindi la profonda serietà morale dell’ispirazione. L’indagine più recente, mentre respinge l’interpretazione che fa degli autori siciliani le figure periferiche, accetta alcune conclusioni critiche precedenti, ma le integra con una nuova serie di proposte e di riconoscimenti. Vincenzo Consolo vive nella tradizione segnata dagli studiosi quasi esclusivamente per il fatto che fu l’amico, l’ammiratore e l’ereditario letterario di Leonardo Sciascia. Ma accanto a questa immagine esiste un’altra figurazione civica di Consolo, quella del letterato enciclopedico, che fa sentire nelle sue opere, con l’ardore della scoperta e l’ansia di comunicarla, tutto l’amore della scienza, della storia e della cultura. E non è da dimenticare il contegno civile di Vincenzo Consolo. Anche se opera nell’ambiente milanese, in uno stadio di involuzione più profonda, non è lontano dall’atteggiamento di partecipazione. Anzi, risulta propenso a stabilire fra la letteratura e la vita quotidiana un legame, in cui si celebri la nuova teorizzata libertà e dignità del letterato. La letteratura che prende avvio dalla Sicilia è caratterizzata dalla straordinaria pluralità e varietà delle voci in cui si esprime 18 Cfr. G. Ferroni, A. Cortellessa, I. Pantani, S. Tatti: Storia della letteratura italiana. La letteratura nell’epoca del postmoderno. Verso una civiltà planetaria 1968—2005. Vol. 17. Milano, Mondadori, 2005, p. 87. 31 il sentimento di una cultura letteraria assai più complessa e insieme obbediente a molte sollecitazioni. Una letteratura di transizione, segnata da parecchie fortissime personalità di orgogliosi cantori della propria terra e capostipiti della civiltà antica, e da una propensione ai tentativi e agli esperimenti, in cui si rispecchia la vita difficile, contradditoria, irta di delusioni e di utopie, di un mondo che si dibatte nella travagliosa ricerca di un nuovo ordine politico, morale ed intellettuale. Esperienza intima e reale è quella che Consolo invera nelle sue opere e che egli fa conoscere distinguendo, su un fondamento assiologico due cose: il valore metaforico di vicende individuali nelle quali ciascuno può ritrovare le proprie passioni e il valore universale dei fatti della storia siciliana con le loro proiezioni ed interpretazioni. Bisogna quindi accostarsi alle opere consoliane come a una cronaca, i cui personaggi rappresentano una specie di dramatis personae, capaci di facilitare il passaggio dalla confessione e dall’indagine psicologica e antropologica ai processi della conoscenza di una più profonda e più complessa realtà, quella che non vive costretta nei limiti di questo, cioè, isolano, spazio. Il significato che assumono gli eventi riportati da Consolo nelle narrazioni, per esempio la strage che conclude il suo ultimo romanzo, risulta assai vasto. Lo spasimo di Palermo sembra una sconfitta della ragione di fronte alla violenza, invece secondo il messaggio metaforico può assumere il valore della presa di coscienza della società civile rinata. Nei romanzi consoliani vi è presente un’immensa esperienza di vita, ed è presente come può esserla a chi non solo la contempla ma anche a chi si mescola fra la vita. I flashback che illuminano l’infanzia difficile dei protagonisti consoliani, la fuga dall’isola e il deludente soggiorno a Milano sono raccontati come il dramma umano che appartiene all’universale travaglio. Questa prosa ci offre, alle soglie della civiltà postmoderna, un’ampia documentazione di fatti e di figure, un quadro mobile e profondo delle società e delle storie diverse. Non sorprende affatto, quindi, che in polemica con l’esistenza e la funzione del confine gli scrittori siciliani non abbandonassero il carattere della loro terra, indicando come correlato della sua consi – 32 Capitolo I: Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine stenza non la limitatezza causata dal mare, ma la fermezza della vicinanza del continente. Nell’immaginario degli autori siciliani l’isola risulta dunque un paesaggio percepito prima staticamente (da lontano) e poi dinamicamente (dall’interno), in una dialettica giustapposta tra “dentro” e “fuori”, tra spazio guardato e spazio vissuto che corrisponde alla duplice essenza dell’isola stessa, che è per definizione un luogo d’accesso posto al confine con mare, uno spazio in cui si abita in uno spazio in cui si viaggia. Per i siciliani le relazioni di spostamento seguono questa fenomenologia lineare di inoltramento (varcare il confine, passare il mare), che si accorda a un’inclinazione all’esplorazione delle direzioni ben determinate come: l’America, l’Italia e l’Europa occidentale. Nell’intreccio di queste istanze antitetiche ancora più nitido sembra il capovolgimento della situazione siciliana, che affonda in complesse dinamiche sociali e antropologiche. La Sicilia, dall’essere terra di emigrazione, è diventata la terra di immigrazione. La sintesi più valida del ribaltamento avvenuto, la dobbiamo a Leonardo Sciascia che nel suo racconto intitolato Il lungo viaggio presenta la partenza dei clandestini da una spiaggia tra Gela e Licata in cui adesso approdano gli immigrati dal Nordafrica. Un’attenzione più dettagliata al rapporto fra la letteratura e la storia viene espressa molte volte nei libri degli scrittori siciliani contemporanei. All’efficacia della storia reinterpretata dalla scrittura non si può non accostare quella della produzione letteraria sempre più florida che spesso coincide con la prima. L’attenzione per la scrittura siciliana è un fenomeno rilevante e procede di pari passo con le vere esplorazioni delle presenze letterarie che si compiono sempre più sistematicamente. Accanto agli autori e ai temi di massima rappresentatività, vi si trovano quelli più recenti che completano l’artistico panorama siciliano. Tra gli argomenti narrati quelli più frequenti riguardano l’espatrio (in America, in Africa, in Germania) e l’attuale condizione della penisola siciliana. Non di rado gli scrittori siciliani tendono a rappresentarsi in questo luogo in cui si concretizza la loro invenzione. Del ritorno in Sicilia scrivono dunque: D’Arrigo, Brancati, Vittorini, Consolo. Secondo Ignazio Romeo: “Tornare significa infatti anche, metaforicamente, Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine 33 scavare in se stessi e nella propria storia, cercare l’estraneo in quello che si è familiare: guardare, insomma, in profondità e a distanza”19. Ma è vero anche che da questo spazio limitato fisicamente si aprono i grandi percorsi della cultura e della fantasia. Sono due elementi fondamentali che reggono l’asse assiologico della letteratura siciliana, il primo riguardante il dibattito relativo all’attuale e storica esistenza umana e il secondo relativo alla letteratura stessa e il suo ruolo nella nostra modernità. Non si tratta di due realtà distintive che finiscono con lo scontrarsi ma di due componenti che complementandosi occupano un posto considerevole nel panorama letterario non solo siciliano o italiano. La forza dell’autoriflessione letteraria degli scrittori siciliani finisce nella maggior parte dei casi come il metadiscorso. Le domande sul senso dell’arte, poste da Verga e Pirandello — i primi esploratori di tale problematica, hanno un carattere ben definito. Una specie di slittamento metonimico da una fase di lotta per la ricchezza ad uno stadio di lotta per la parola, il contrasto essere/apparire, la permanenza del binomio vita/teatro diventano motivi costanti di chi vuole autointerrogarsi. Non meraviglia dunque il fatto che tutto ciò che Pirandello nomina nei Quaderni di Serafino Gubbio operatore ”il tumulto della civiltà” trae l’ispirazione dalla figura leopardiana del poeta “inattuale” che ha provocato la discussione sulla relazione tra la scrittura e la lettura, l’autore e il pubblico20. Si radica ai nostri occhi l’opinione che la Sicilia sia soltanto il simbolo, l’espediente che consente di stabilire un contatto tra l’uomo e la sua identità. Vincenzo Consolo si dedica alla stesura delle sue opere ricorrendo alla pluralità linguistica che caratterizza la sua espressione letteraria. Accanto all’uso del lessico dell’italiano comune, il prosatore si serve del dialetto siciliano con delle varietà di re19 I. Romeo: Passare il mare. Dall’emigrazione all’immigrazione: cento anni di memorie e racconti nelle pagine degli scrittori siciliani. Palermo, Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei beni culturali ed ambientali e della pubblica istruzione, Dipartimento dei beni culturali, ambientali e dell’educazione permanente, 2007, p. 12. 20 Cfr. L. Fava Guzzetta: Dalle domande della scrittura alle domande sulla scrittura. La coscienza letteraria dei siciliani. Caltanissetta, Sciascia, 2003, p. 11. 34 Capitolo I: Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine gistri e di toni dal domestico familiare al lirico-volgare21. Giuseppe Bellia, analizzando il modo di scrivere consoliano, parla dell’autonomo sviluppo del filone gaddiano rafforzato dalla ricerca costante di linguaggi antichi, di tradizioni locali e di ritualità arcaiche. E nell’affermato gusto barocco dello scrittore riconosce il meccanismo di un reperimento o di un ritrovamento della parola e non della sua invenzione22. Rifiuta le parole e i pensieri comuni, cerca con accuratezza quelle che rinchiudono il più d’accessori, esimio soprattutto nella scelta degli epiteti e dei verbi. Mira ad esprimere molto in poco. Ha l’idolatria della parola, non solo come espressione dell’idea, ma staccata, presa in sé come suono, attento a separare le parole nobili dalle plebee, le poetiche dalle prosaiche, ed raccontare tutto con sincerità. Anche nell’uso delle parole poetiche Consolo segue l’ultimo Verga che invade lo strato sintattico introducendo le formule dubitative. Con questo procedimento lo scrittore ha dichiarato l’allontanamento dal centro ed ha espresso la mancanza di una univocità dei significati23. La prosa consoliana manifesta un’inquietudine uguale causata dall’assenza dell’interlocutore immediato inscrivendosi nell’attuale discorso sulla comunicazione letteraria. Lia Fava Guzzetta nomina Consolo “un intellettuale meridionale, consapevole di una ‘ferita’, di una esclusione e di uno sradicamento”24 che si applica allo studio profondo del passato troppo facilmente rifiutato dalla società odierna. La difficoltà sta nell’impossibilità dell’abbinare la parola di oggi alla rappresentazione della Sicilia di una volta. La narrazione che avviene per frammenti viene paragonata a volte alla dimensione del reportage giornalistico. Anche Giuseppe Traina nel suo saggio dedicato allo scrittore siciliano mette in rilievo l’importanza di questo genere destinato da Consolo alla testimonianza degli avvenimenti accaduti negli ultimi anni come, per esempio, i funerali dello studente Walter Rossi, militante della sinistra extraparlamentare ucciso 21 Cfr. G. Passarello: Un’isola non abbastanza isola. Palermo, Palumbo, 2007, p. 136. 22 Cfr. G. Bellia: L’obliquo percorso della memoria. La scrittura di Vincenzo Consolo tra storia, ritualità e sdegno. In: Sub specie typographica… 23 Cfr. L. Fava Guzzetta: Dalle domande della scrittura…, p. 15. 24 Ibidem, p. 19. 35 dai neofascisti25. Perciὸ, per evitare l’ambiguità del discorso, Consolo ricorre più volte ad un referente diverso dalla scrittura, appartenente invece al campo delle arti figurative, come i quadri di Antonello, di Caravaggio e di Raffaello, i dipinti di Clerici. Il romanzo Lo spasimo di Palermo vuole essere infatti la manifestazione della forza stilistica orientata verso la ricreazione di una speranza di giustizia e di razionalità nel modo in cui dominano oppressione e terrore anche se la sospensione della comunicazione tra un padre e un figlio espressa tramite il motivo di una lettera rimane una tra le scene più suggestive di questo romanzo che tratta dell’impossibilità della continuazione di scrivere. Consolo è cosciente delle conseguenze della postmodernità così come lo era George Steiner che nel Linguaggio e silenzio parla dell’esaurimento dell’era verbale e del dominio delle forme “postlinguistiche” e addirittura del silenzio parziale26. 25 Cfr. G. Traina: Vincenzo Consolo. Fiesole, Cadmo, 2001, p. 21. 26 Cfr. G. Steiner: Linguaggio e silenzio. Milano, Garzanti, 2001, p. 56.
Aneta Chmiel ” Rompere il silenzio I romanzi di Vincenzo Consolo“
Le strategie linguistiche e strutturali mediante le quali Consolo costruisce la densità della propria parola letteraria, torcendola e caricandola nella sfida impossibile alla consistenza della realtà, e la stessa idea consoliana della parola, mettono capo a tensioni e aspirazioni solitamente rubricate sotto il segno della «poesia», nella costellazione, per intenderci, che si muove tra simbolismo e modernismo. La stessa ricorrente tentazione dell’afasia come esito della volontà di troppo dire è del resto segnale non dubbio di queste ascendenze. Non a caso già dal romanzo d’esordio, e fino alle ultime prove, T.S. Eliot è uno dei numi tutelari di Consolo. Allo stesso modo, per tutta la vita Consolo non ha smesso di sottolineare il proprio rifiuto radicale di appartenere alla tradizione propriamente romanzesca, sospetta perché troppo incline a cedere alle lusinghe di una facile leggibilità, ad usum commercii. Prove narrative le sue, quindi, ma protese verso la poesia. D’altro canto, non ci sono dubbi sulla necessità di accostare il suo progetto, letterario ma anche politico-culturale, alla tradizione meridionalistica, nel cui solco si forma, e che non ha mai smesso di operare, anche quando Consolo è andato prendendo strade assai diverse: come già negli anni Ottanta, con libri decisamente atipici come Lunaria e lo stesso Retablo, e sempre più negli anni Novanta. Stiamo così toccando l’altra questione di fondo: quella dell’ossessione della Sicilia. «Scrivo sempre di Sicilia perché non ci si può allontanare dagli anni della propria memoria» ha dichiarato lo scrittore: il che vuol dire, ed è un altro punto decisivo, che l’invenzione letteraria deve nascere dall’esperienza, con la quale entrerà in tensione, sforzandosi di esorcizzare i propri fatali limiti con l’accumulo e la pluralizzazione della forma.
Certo, Consolo parla di tutto sub specie Siciliae, tenendo insieme, in modo decisamente peculiare, la proiezione verso una dimensione di esemplarità e la messa a fuoco dettagliata di tratti storicamente identificati, ricostruiti con precisione maniacale. La sua sicilianità concede in questo senso abbastanza poco alla fuga per la tangente di una a-storica condizione universale, così caratteristica invece di altri autori siciliani, da Pirandello a Vittorini. In innumerevoli occasioni Consolo ha ricordato la sua ferma volontà di approdare alla metafora per via di storia, secondo il sempre attuale, magistrale modello manzoniano: «La lezione del Manzoni è proprio la metafora. Ci siamo sempre chiesti perché abbia ambientato il suo romanzo nel Seicento e non nell’Ottocento. Oltre che per il rovello per la giustizia, proprio per dare distanza alla sua inarrestabile metafora. L’Italia del Manzoni sembra davvero eterna, inestinguibile». L’esemplarità della Sicilia fa tutt’uno in Consolo con la sua peculiarità: che ci fa capire com’è l’Italia proprio perché è un caso estremo. Si potrebbe persino ipotizzare che, mutatis mutandis, a quello che egli scrive della Sicilia possa accadere in futuro qualcosa di simile a quanto già accaduto con la Lucania di Carlo Levi: ridiventata fruibile e attuale perché ricontestualizzata in «un quadro afroasiatico e latinoamericano». La Sicilia di Consolo vale come un’Italia estrema, e però anche come campione fin troppo vero di innumerevoli Sud del mondo. Per altri versi, la Sicilia di Consolo esibisce un cortocircuito di opposti, oscillando fra il vagheggiamento memoriale di un luogo che avrebbe potuto conciliare bellezza storica e naturale, vitalità e cultura, desiderio e conoscenza, e la constatazione, sempre più addolorata e indignata, dell’orrore reale, dell’ingiustizia perpetuata, della collusione eterna fra violenza criminale e violenza istituzionale. La Sicilia è un inferno, insomma, tanto quanto avrebbe potuto essere un paradiso. E la Sicilia è sempre solo la Sicilia: anzi no, è dappertutto.
Il progetto, ma forse dovremmo parlare piuttosto di dovere e di esigenza insopprimibile, di scrivere sempre di Sicilia coincide con la ferma convinzione che l’impresa della scrittura letteraria debba farsi portatrice di uno sguardo critico nei confronti della realtà, e implichi una dimensione etica, implicitamente o esplicitamente politica. Consolo ha infatti svolto per quasi cinquant’anni anche un’intensa attività giornalistica, della quale una larga percentuale è espressione di una diretta militanza civile. Restando però nell’ambito della scrittura letteraria, egli ha delineato, con un’originalità e un rigore teorico che hanno pochi termini di paragone in Italia, una possibile coincidenza fra espressività ed eticità, dove il permanente impegno civile deve identificarsi con la specificità della scrittura, cioè con l’impegno formale. Chiusa la stagione dell’engagement, per Consolo lo scrittore deve fare il proprio mestiere, fino in fondo, senza compromessi: solo così la scrittura può guadagnare lo spessore etico adeguato alle proprie aspirazioni, conoscitive non meno che estetiche. D’altro canto, chi scrive scrive, e dunque non può ignorare che scrivendo rinuncia al diretto impegno politico. Di conseguenza, i paradossi della parola letteraria, della sua pochezza e della sua titanica presunzione si rifrangono e ripetono nella compresenza costante di aperta politicità e senso di colpa dell’intellettuale, sempre abitato dalla sofferta consapevolezza della propria distanza dall’azione reale. Da questo punto di vista, Consolo ha molte cose in comune con Vittorio Sereni, e con lo stesso Franco Fortini, che del resto frequentava. L’orgoglioso dovere della scrittura comporta così un permanente rimorso, che confina col senso d’inferiorità. Persino la dimensione utopica, pure evocata con tanta forza da Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, non smette in realtà di mescolarsi con la cattiva coscienza, con un irriducibile senso di colpa. Ecco l’utopia del barone Mandralisca:
E gli altri, che mai hanno raggiunto i dritti più sacri e elementari, la terra e il pane, la salute e l’amore, la pace, la gioja e l’istruzione, questi dico, e sono la più parte, perché devono intender quelle parole a modo nostro? Ah, tempo verrà in cui da soli conquisteranno que’ valori, ed essi allora li chiameranno con parole nuove, vere per loro, e giocoforza anche per noi, vere perché i nomi saranno intieramente riempiti dalle cose. (SIM, qui alle pp. 216-7)
Questo sogno di un linguaggio che abolisca il divario fra le parole e le cose assomiglia molto alla permanente tensione di Consolo verso una parola portatrice di una densità tanto speciale da farla assomigliare a una cosa vera. Ma persino qui, dove tanto più la voce del personaggio pare confondersi con quella dell’autore, siamo obbligati a diffidare, e a prendere atto della permanente polifonia della scrittura consoliana; quel sogno infatti deve essere percepito come nobile, sì, ma impossibile, e persino mistificatore: «Quello non è il pensiero dell’autore, ma del Mandralisca, dell’intellettuale che cerca di scaricarsi la coscienza, di alleviare i sensi di colpa donando il suo patrimonio al popolo di Cefalù, nella speranza che le nuove generazioni “possano scrivere da sé la storia”. Certo, questa soluzione è ingenua, se non demagogica».
by Maria Roberta Vella In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Master of Arts in Literary Tradition and Popular Culture August 2014 Faculty of Arts University of Malta
I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions. II Table of Contents 1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2 1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7 1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10 1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12 1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16 2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7 2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23 2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27 2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34 3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43 3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49 4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58 4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60 4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69 4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76 5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78 5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80 5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?. III Abstract
The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot. 1 Introduction The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1 Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104 2 region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104 4 of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104 5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55 6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region. 1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature shaping the way in which history and culture developed. The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on 8 the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the region, a rich imaginary is created. The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller. Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience. 9 1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power. The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief, need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a 5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010) 10 spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage. 6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6) 11 1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today, in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014) www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February, 2014) 13 ‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning. The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15 1.4 Conclusion The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies, contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’. 16 2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients. 17 The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996) 12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike. 13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007) 19 2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372 20 figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) 21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean. Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.
‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure -penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17 ‘Drunken songs and curses rise up in the suburban tavern. Here, too, I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18 16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba \V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014) 17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372 22 Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’ with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014) 23 have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011) 24 natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love, between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95 25 infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor: 26 ‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22 ‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio” and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’ 2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95 27 number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238 28 Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean, that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238 29 deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25 ‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’ This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) 30 place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself. 27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) 28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) 31 Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56 30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29 32 ‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history. 2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008) 34 and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25 35 clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture, al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 ‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature. 34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi (Garzanti elefanti: 2008) 35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53 36 The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination. 37 3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)
38 the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself: ‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole. 37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08 39 The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014) 40 eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41 naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to 41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011) 43 divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting. The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean. 42 Ibid pp.443 43 Ibid pp.443 44 Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean, interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45 voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region. It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion. In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46 in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47 paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time. One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication. 48 3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea: 49 ‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component, exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224 47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247) 50 speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146 51 lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess. In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate: ‘Se ti sabir, Ti respondir; Se non sabir, Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50 The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf 50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143 53 Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates, fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul, from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto” developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian, 51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014) 54 French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014) 55 language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53 ‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin. It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic. 53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237 56 And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture. 57 4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction. Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80 58 been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the region have taken place. The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange. Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the ‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region. As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The 59 Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place. Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean. 4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57 56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea: 2000) pp.7 60 ‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’ The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary. Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his 61 writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found. ‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58 ‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’ The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure, and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean 58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea: 2000) pp.17 62 imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself. The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63 perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own. The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60 , she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined. It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on 59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300 64 land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea. Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute. The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a 61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 65 voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return. Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62 , Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home 62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006) 66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities. 67 Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist, develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region. The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something that is common, something that is part of a collective memory. The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular 68 culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts. 4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions. To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology. One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance, shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use. The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300 70 ‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64 The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie. When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71 unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision. 72 A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer. Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of 65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014) 66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003) 73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds. This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus. What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver. The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between 67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014) 75 Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study. 4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours. Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour. 77 5 Conclusion The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68 From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer. In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’, most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the 68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100 78 Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the ‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes. On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also 69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100 79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society. 5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different 7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213 80 elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary. Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are 71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81 accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself. Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers. The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars. From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory. Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213 82 Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a shared Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the 83 Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience. 5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity. Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex 84 identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable. 85 Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things. 72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000) 86 Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’ country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable. The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 87 concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity: ‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical, coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past; it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future, though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus, horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely a legacy of the past.’ 73 In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now. The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary, 73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8 88 being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher. A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’. All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region, 89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an ‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be transported through time. The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself. 90 The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity. 91 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY Annstrong A. 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I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions. II Table of Contents 1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2 1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7 1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10 1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12 1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16 2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7 2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23 2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27 2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34 3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43 3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49 4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58 4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60 4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69 4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76 5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78 5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80 5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?. III Abstract
The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot. 1 Introduction The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1 Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104 2 region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104 4 of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104 5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55 6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region. 1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature shaping the way in which history and culture developed. The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on 8 the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the region, a rich imaginary is created. The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller. Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience. 9 1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power. The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief, need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a 5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010) 10 spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage. 6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6) 11 1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today, in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014) www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February, 2014) 13 ‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning. The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15 1.4 Conclusion The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies, contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’. 16 2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients. 17 The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996) 12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike. 13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007) 19 2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372 20 figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) 21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean. Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.
‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure -penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17 ‘Drunken songs and curses rise up in the suburban tavern. Here, too, I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18 16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba \V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014) 17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372 22 Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’ with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014) 23 have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011) 24 natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love, between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95 25 infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor: 26 ‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22 ‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio” and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’ 2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95 27 number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238 28 Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean, that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238 29 deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25 ‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’ This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) 30 place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself. 27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) 28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) 31 Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56 30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29 32 ‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history. 2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008) 34 and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25 35 clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture, al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 ‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature. 34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi (Garzanti elefanti: 2008) 35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53 36 The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination. 37 3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)
38 the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself: ‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole. 37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08 39 The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014) 40 eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41 naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to 41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011) 43 divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting. The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean. 42 Ibid pp.443 43 Ibid pp.443 44 Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean, interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45 voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region. It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion. In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46 in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47 paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time. One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication. 48 3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea: 49 ‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component, exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224 47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247) 50 speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146 51 lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess. In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate: ‘Se ti sabir, Ti respondir; Se non sabir, Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50 The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf 50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143 53 Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates, fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul, from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto” developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian, 51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014) 54 French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014) 55 language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53 ‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin. It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic. 53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237 56 And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture. 57 4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction. Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80 58 been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the region have taken place. The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange. Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the ‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region. As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The 59 Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place. Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean. 4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57 56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea: 2000) pp.7 60 ‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’ The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary. Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his 61 writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found. ‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58 ‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’ The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure, and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean 58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea: 2000) pp.17 62 imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself. The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63 perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own. The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60 , she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined. It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on 59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300 64 land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea. Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute. The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a 61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 65 voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return. Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62 , Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home 62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006) 66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities. 67 Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist, develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region. The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something that is common, something that is part of a collective memory. The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular 68 culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts. 4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions. To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology. One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance, shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use. The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300 70 ‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64 The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie. When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71 unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision. 72 A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer. Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of 65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014) 66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003) 73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds. This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus. What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver. The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between 67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014) 75 Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study. 4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours. Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour. 77 5 Conclusion The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68 From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer. In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’, most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the 68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100 78 Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the ‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes. On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also 69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100 79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society. 5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different 7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213 80 elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary. Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are 71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81 accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself. Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers. The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars. From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory. Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213 82 Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a shared Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the 83 Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience. 5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity. Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex 84 identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable. 85 Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things. 72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000) 86 Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’ country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable. The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 87 concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity: ‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical, coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past; it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future, though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus, horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely a legacy of the past.’ 73 In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now. The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary, 73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8 88 being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher. A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’. All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region, 89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an ‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be transported through time. The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself. 90 The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity. 91 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY Annstrong A. 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I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions. II Table of Contents 1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2 1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7 1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10 1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12 1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16 2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7 2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23 2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27 2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34 3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43 3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49 4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58 4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60 4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69 4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76 5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78 5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80 5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?. III Abstract
The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot. 1 Introduction The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1 Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104 2 region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104 4 of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104 5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55 6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region. 1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature shaping the way in which history and culture developed. The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on 8 the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the region, a rich imaginary is created. The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller. Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience. 9 1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power. The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief, need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a 5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010) 10 spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage. 6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6) 11 1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today, in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014) www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February, 2014) 13 ‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning. The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15 1.4 Conclusion The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies, contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’. 16 2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients. 17 The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996) 12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike. 13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007) 19 2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372 20 figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) 21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean. Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.
‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure -penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17 ‘Drunken songs and curses rise up in the suburban tavern. Here, too, I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18 16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba \V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014) 17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372 22 Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’ with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014) 23 have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011) 24 natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love, between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95 25 infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor: 26 ‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22 ‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio” and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’ 2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95 27 number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238 28 Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean, that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238 29 deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25 ‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’ This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) 30 place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself. 27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) 28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) 31 Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56 30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29 32 ‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history. 2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008) 34 and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25 35 clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture, al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 ‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature. 34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi (Garzanti elefanti: 2008) 35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53 36 The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination. 37 3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)
38 the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself: ‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole. 37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08 39 The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014) 40 eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41 naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to 41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011) 43 divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting. The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean. 42 Ibid pp.443 43 Ibid pp.443 44 Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean, interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45 voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region. It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion. In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46 in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47 paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time. One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication. 48 3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea: 49 ‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component, exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224 47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247) 50 speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146 51 lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess. In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate: ‘Se ti sabir, Ti respondir; Se non sabir, Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50 The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf 50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143 53 Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates, fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul, from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto” developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian, 51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014) 54 French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014) 55 language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53 ‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin. It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic. 53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237 56 And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture. 57 4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction. Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80 58 been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the region have taken place. The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange. Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the ‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region. As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The 59 Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place. Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean. 4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57 56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea: 2000) pp.7 60 ‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’ The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary. Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his 61 writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found. ‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58 ‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’ The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure, and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean 58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea: 2000) pp.17 62 imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself. The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63 perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own. The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60 , she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined. It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on 59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300 64 land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea. Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute. The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a 61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 65 voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return. Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62 , Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home 62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006) 66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities. 67 Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist, develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region. The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something that is common, something that is part of a collective memory. The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular 68 culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts. 4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions. To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology. One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance, shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use. The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300 70 ‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64 The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie. When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71 unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision. 72 A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer. Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of 65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014) 66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003) 73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds. This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus. What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver. The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between 67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014) 75 Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study. 4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours. Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour. 77 5 Conclusion The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68 From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer. In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’, most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the 68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100 78 Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the ‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes. On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also 69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100 79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society. 5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different 7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213 80 elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary. Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are 71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81 accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself. Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers. The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars. From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory. Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213 82 Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a shared Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the 83 Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience. 5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity. Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex 84 identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable. 85 Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things. 72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000) 86 Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’ country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable. The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 87 concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity: ‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical, coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past; it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future, though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus, horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely a legacy of the past.’ 73 In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now. The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary, 73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8 88 being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher. A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’. All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region, 89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an ‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be transported through time. The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself. 90 The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity. 91 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY Annstrong A. 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