Il tema dell’ingiustizia come violazione del tabù L’esigenza dell’impegno

„Scrittore isolato, e solitario, sciolto cioè da legami politici [quali crede] dovrebbero essere gli scrittori, liberi da impegni partitici, ma legati da impegni ideali, morali, storici”. Con queste parole Salvatore Mazzarella definisce l’atteggiamento ideologico di Consolo1 . Parlare dell’ingiustizia, della sofferenza e dell’umiltà nella cultura occidentale significa addentrarsi in una zona pericolosa. Di solito questi argomenti vengono sviluppati in un discorso dedicato alle radici cristiane della nostra civiltà e quando si espone la nozione di sofferenza in una dimensione universale. Il divieto, l’esteticità, l’inopportunità e la convenzione — tutti i concetti indicati appaiono quando si parla del tabù. Esso diventa una sempre più diffusa zona che interessa l’esperienza morale al pari di quella concettuale e da cui l’uomo di cultura si sente attratto e nello stesso tempo deluso. I critici e i lettori sono convinti che lo scrittore sia caratterizzato da “una profonda tensione etica che lo avvicina ai grandi moralisti del passato, tesi ed attenti al compito di descrivere l’uomo nella sua mutevole, e pure,
1  S. Mazzarella: Dell’olivo e dell’olivastro, ossia d’un viaggiatore. “Nuove Effemeridi” 1995, n. 29, p. 65. 38
eterna storia”2 .
E non basta dire che lo scrittore è propenso a fare del suo stile “un mezzo di intervento e di rivolta, ma anche di proposta umanistica” 3 . Per tale ragione, l’esortazione a non fargli mancare “l’impegno per la giustizia e il risalto netto della voce dei deboli” diventa l’elemento fermo della sua narrativa 4 . Nati spesso dalla suggestione delle letture, degli incontri e delle polemiche dell’attualità, i dilemmi che muovono la riflessione del narratore siciliano relativo alla distinzione tra lo scrivere e il narrare si avvicinano nella loro forma e contenuto all’esercizio scrittorio “capace di incidere sul reale in senso conoscitivo e trasformativo”5 , ideati nei turbini della realtà estranea e vergati su molteplici esperienze, fino a costruire una congerie omogenea e ordinata di sequenze. Dice Consolo: Dopo Hiroshima e Auschwitz, dopo Stalin e Sarajevo, dopo tutti gli orrori di oggi, quei mostri profetizzati da Kafka o da Musil, da Eliot, da Joyce o da Pirandello, sono diventati mostri della storia. Questi mostri credo che la letteratura, il romanzo abbia oggi l’obbligo di affrontare. Altrimenti è alienazione, fuga, colpevole assenza, se non complicità6 . Considerando la genesi della scrittura consoliana, è necessario sottolineare lo stretto legame che intercorre fra la complessità delle cose e le vibrazioni affettive e razionali che costituiscono il tratto distintivo della sua scelta di scrittura.
2  F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo. La figura e l’opera. Marina di Patti, Pungitopo, 1990, p. 28. 3  Ibidem, p. 6. 4  Cfr. C. Ternullo: Vincenzo Consolo: dalla Ferita allo Spasimo. Catania, Prova d’Autore, 1998, p. 30. 5  F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 6. 6  V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna. La Sicilia e Milano, la memoria e la storia. Roma, Donzelli Editore, 1993, pp. 51—53. (Dalla nota dell’editore: l’intervista a Vincenzo Consolo raccolta in questo volume è stata effettuata il 25 giugno del 1993 a Roma. L’incontro era stato organizzato dall’Imes (Istituto meridionale di storia e scienza sociali), nall’ambito di una iniziativa intitolata “Percorsi di ricerca”, tesa a indagare l’interazione tra la vicenda umana e l’itinerario intellettuale di alcune figure particolarmente significative della cultura del nostro tempo).
L’esigenza dell’impegno.  A ben vedere i tratti che segnano le opere consoliane sono caratterizzati da una propria articolazione della realtà attraverso una comunicazione più immediata e da una responsabilità etica e civile: la presenza di ciò che ha contraddistinto la maggior parte della sua esistenza. Non sarà un caso che all’interno dell’opera il pensiero sul ruolo della produzione letteraria si presenti con frequenza: accompagnato dal senso di una necessità naturale e spesso corretto da una speranza nella capacità della scrittura di mettere ordine e di “portare armonia là dove c’è caos e quindi impossibilità di comunicare”7 . Si pensi alla confessione dello scrittore stesso: “La mia ideologia o se volete la mia utopia consiste nell’oppormi al potere, qualsiasi potere, nel combattere con l’arma della scrittura, che è come la fionda di David, o meglio come la lancia di Don Chisciotte, le ingiustizie, le sopraffazioni, le violenze, i mali e gli orrori del nostro tempo”8 . Le allusioni a David e a Don Chisciotte mettono in rilievo la consapevolezza che la riflessione e la scrittura, e soprattutto una scrittura eticamente e politicamente impegnata, sono una missione. All’atteggiamento di una tale consapevolezza sono dedicate tutte le narrazioni consoliane. Secondo Vincenzo Consolo la narrativa dovrebbe esprimere una responsabilità civile e prendere posizione davanti agli avvenimenti. L’accostamento della scrittura e della responsabilità testimonia la sua personale forma di opposizione o di impulso verso qualcosa di migliore. Quello che conta nelle opere consoliane sono la verosimiglianza dell’osservazione morale, la consapevolezza ritradotta in disincanto e in frustrazione delle speranze, la ribellione, e infine, l’indagine. È possibile comprendere più a fondo le scelte espressive di Consolo confrontando il presente frammento: […] lo scrittore oggi ha il compito di dire, di narrare. Narrare oggettivamente in terza persona dei mostri, delle mostruosità che abbiamo creato, con cui, privi ormai di memoria, di rimorso, pri
7  L. Canali: Che schiaffo la furia civile di Consolo. “L’Unità” 1998, il 7 ottobre, pp. 1, 19. 8  V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna…, p. 70. 40
vi dell’assillo di raggiungere una meta, da alienati, felicemente conviviamo 9 . Per accrescere la forza espressiva della riflessione, Consolo aggiunge al generico e spoglio verbo “narrare” l’avverbio: “oggettivamente” che non solo mostra la direzione dell’accurato lavoro di chi scrive ma rivela la stretta connessione fra il messaggio e la responsabilità dell’esistenza altrui. La preoccupazione dell’avvenire, che interessa scarsamente l’uomo mentre gode dei piaceri mondani, è infatti sollecitata dall’acre percezione del dolore subito nel passato. Il frammento sopraccitato indica il coinvolgimento degli intellettuali nell’ordine etico, determinando gli accessibili modelli della presentazione. Molte volte viene sottolineato il fatto che quello che sconcerta il lettore è che non vi è stata giustizia in passato e non vi è nemmeno nel presente. Fortunatamente esiste ancora chi non si arrende. Il protagonista del capolavoro consoliano Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, il barone Enrico Pirajno di Mandralisca dichiara la crisi irreversibile del suo ruolo di intellettuale organico alla classe dominante: la consapevolezza di una “Storia come scrittura continua di privilegiati” (SIM, 112), di un’impossibilità delle classi subalterne a far sentire la loro voce e il loro giudizio, si salda alla consapevolezza dei “vizi” e delle “storture” che gravano sui pensieri e sulle parole degli stessi aristocratici e borghesi “cosiddetti illuminati”, dell’oggettiva incapacità dei loro “codici” a “interpretare” i problemi delle masse oppresse10. Dunque l’attaccamento all’esperienza della giustizia deve affrontare continuamente il pensiero della frustrazione e con la temibile insidia della debolezza. Se il pensiero della sconfitta può essere solo attenuato dal grido e dal pianto, sempre pronto a svelare gli indegni comportamenti umani, il rimedio all’impotenza va cercato altrove. Si legga l’ampio pensiero di Giuseppe Amoroso: Nella prosa di Vincenzo Consolo, quello che appare e percuote e grida e geme è una presenza vera di lacrime e certezze e anche
9 Ibidem, p. 22. 10 Cfr. G.C. Ferretti: L’intelligenza e follia. “Rinascita” 1976, il 23 luglio. L’esigenza dell’impegno 41 un assiduo riprendere, del tempo, ciò che si è smarrito, non del tutto, non per sempre, portandosi dentro anche i gloriosi cascami della storia […], questa prosa mostra una solennità intangibile, pure dove si china sulle frange, sui refoli, sui margini, in cerca di colori e oggetti e riti di una volta11. Dopo aver constatato che l’espressività di questa prosa è dovuta all’argomento analizzato, Amoroso prosegue con la descrizione della scrittura consoliana marcata da una funzione inconfondibile. Il vuoto e l’insoddisfazione dovuti all’avanzare dell’ingiustizia si placano nella convinzione che “la letteratura, il romanzo abbia oggi l’obbligo di affrontare i mostri creati dai potenti. Altrimenti è alienazione, fuga, colpevole assenza, se non complicità”12. Tramite l’analisi presentata il critico vuole decisamente sottolineare l’atteggiamento spirituale piuttosto romantico dello scrittore e l’espressione dei pensieri come studiata e ripensata. Nell’insieme, la produzione consoliana, secondo Amoroso, ha una sua solida struttura, e fa presagire le future ampiezze di respiro lirico. I cinque romanzi sottoposti alla presente analisi sono stati scritti nell’arco di oltre trent’anni. La circostanza, ad avvalorare l’immagine di instancabile ribelle che Consolo ha lasciato di sé, non manca di presentare traccia nella varietà degli argomenti, e dei punti di vista che sono diventati i motivi costanti nella sua scrittura. Spesso si ha l’impressione che l’omogeneità della sua prosa risponda a un’intima esigenza di impegno etico, civile, ideologico e sperimentale. Queste considerazioni, se non illustrano organicamente la poetica della sua prosa, meritano di essere tenute in conto per comprendere, se non altro, i tempi adombrati dai fantasmi delle oppressioni descritte dallo scrittore siciliano. Con Nottetempo, casa per casa in Consolo subentra una rimeditazione, una sosta pensosa sui fatti, sui luoghi, la denuncia. Il testo si basa sulla deliberata ricerca del clima apocalittico, preannunciato dal titolo, e sul resoconto mai banale della pena più antica del tempo, della storia, dell’esistere. Come con
11 G. Amoroso: Il notaio della Via Lattea. Narrativa italiana 1996—1998. Caltanissetta—Roma, Salvatore Sciascia editore, 2000, pp. 464—467. 12 V. Consolo: Fuga dall’Etna…, pp. 51—53. 42
stata Antonio Grillo, abbiamo la forte affermazione della necessità di un impegno da parte degli scrittori13. E Consolo, parlando delle questioni di moralità, vuole sensibilizzare la percezione dei lettori. Silvio Perella, accortosi di tale valenza etica, aggiunge: “il fatto è che, giustamente, l’aspetto etico della sua letteratura sta molto a cuore a Consolo”14. Sa bene lo scrittore che la forza e l’incisività del suo messaggio stanno nell’immediatezza del comunicato espressa dalle narrazioni nei suoi frammenti più drammatici. Il che costituisce, se non una prova del rivolgere la sua attenzione alle sorti degli emarginati, certo una riflessione eloquente sul bisogno di narrare, di raccontare le vecchie e le nuove pene. E nella torre ora, dopo le urla, il pianto, anch’egli stanco, s’era chetato. Si mise in ginocchio a terra, appoggiò le braccia alla pietra bianca della macina riversa di quello ch’era stato un tempo un mulino a vento, e cercò di scrivere nel suo quaderno — ma intinge la penna nell’inchiostro secco, nel catrame del vetro, nei pori della lava, nei grumi dell’ossidiana, cosparge il foglio di polvere, di cenere, un soffio, e si rivela il nulla, l’assenza d’ogni segno, rivela l’impotenza, l’incapacità di dire, di raccontare la vita, il patimento. N, 53
La caratteristica principale di quest’articolazione non è la spontaneità peculiare piuttosto dei romantici, ma lo sforzo di trovare le parole più adatte. Grazie al potere di nominare i fenomeni, precedentemente impossibili da esprimere, acquistano l’esistenza, e in conseguenza la propria identità. La forma lirica invece assume una responsabilità che rende possibile l’esistenza di un soggetto e la cognizione di esso. L’anticlimax: “catrame — lava — ossidiana — polvere — cenere — nulla” sottolinea la vanità dello sforzo artistico nei confronti della prepotenza e del dolore che ostacolano il processo creativo. Vengono qui evidenziati, quindi, un appassionato attacco
13 Cfr. A. Grillo: Appunti su Odisseo e il suo viaggio nella cultura siciliana contemporanea: da Vittorini a Consolo e a Cattafi. In: Ulisse nel tempo. La metafora infinita. A cura di S. Nicosia. Venezia, Marsilio, 2000, pp. 593—597. 14 S. Perella: Tra etica e barocco. “L’Indice” 1992, maggio.
all’ingiustizia che assume valore universale, la contradditoria asistematicità di un ricerca esistenziale che non esita a dar voce anche alle pulsioni inconsce e persino alle più inconfessabili, confermata nell’elenco degli espedienti retorici che precedono direttamente l’espressione finale dell’impotenza di “raccontare la vita, il patimento”. Si potrebbe dire che la scrittura si ponga piuttosto come terreno di conflitto che come luogo della sua soluzione. L’esigenza di messaggio è indubitabile15. La caustica riflessione dello scrittore sigla l’amara ricognizione sulle cause della caduta delle forti e generose illusioni riguardanti le facoltà comunicative. Infatti, in una delle sue interviste Consolo dichiara: È necessario scrivere in una forma non più dialogante e comunicativa, ma spostarsi sempre più verso la parte poetica, perché la poesia è un monologo e quindi ti riduci nella parte del coro dove non puoi che lamentare la tragedia del mondo. Per questo la mia prosa è organizzata in senso ritmico, come se fossero dei versi16. Nottetempo, casa per casa è, in confronto al Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, più compatto, più chiuso in una sua forma ritmica, densa di significati e piuttosto ermetica. E continua: Ho voluto scrivere una tragedia — niente è più tragico della follia — con scene-capitoli, con intermezzi del coro, che sono le frequenti digressioni lirico-espressive in cui il narrante s’affaccia e commenta o fa eco in un tono più alto, più acceso. Perché questo compattare, perché l’eliminazione della scena del messaggero, dell’anghelos, del personaggio-autore che si rivolge agli spettatori-lettori e narra in termini non espressivi ma assolutamente comunicativi il fatto che è avvenuto altrove, in un altro tempo?
17 15 Cfr. L. Canali: Che schiaffo…, pp. 1, 19. 16 Intervista con Vincenzo Consolo. A cura di D. Marraffa e R. Corpaci. “Italialibri” 2001, www.italialibri.it (data di consultazione: il 28 dicembre 2006). 17 Ibidem.
Infatti, lo spunto questa volta è tragico; ma quell’antica ispirazione malinconica diventa antitetica, forse per reminiscenze classiche di simile allegoria a sfondo politico. E specialmente nella sua espressione contiene l’eco della giovinezza povera, triste, ma fiera e disperatamente fiduciosa. Sullo sfondo, per di più, è impossibile non intravedere la forza di questo progetto. La presa di posizione dello scrittore a favore della poesia potrebbe essere interpretata come un attacco a un preciso bersaglio critico. Se la scienza fornisce un’immagine del mondo in cui non c’è posto per le antiche credenze metafisiche, gli strumenti proposti attualmente si rivelano inutili, se non addirittura fuorvianti. L’obbligo di dare ragione Nati sul filo della conversazione del passato con il presente, i romanzi consoliani sono intessuti di quella curiosità intellettuale che si pone l’obiettivo di raccontare la realtà. Le narrazioni dello scrittore concorrono ad elaborare il comune problema delle vicende dell’uomo di cultura nel quadro della società odierna. Un compito arduo, tanto che molti scrittori di oggi assistono alla progressiva riduzione del proprio spazio in una società che vive accanto, al di fuori delle loro possibilità. Sembra concentrarsi all’efficacia di testimonianza e di verifica e alla partecipazione dell’individuo all’esistenza comunitaria. Secondo Grazia Cherchi “il narratore intellettuale del nostro tempo non ha altro scampo che la parodia”18, e l’autore è d’accordo con lei: lo scrivere in negativo, usare tutti gli abrasivi e corrosivi: l’ironia, il sarcasmo testimoniano il valore delle opere19. Consolo stesso ammette:
18 G. Cherchi: Mille e una notte. “L’Unità” 1987, il 11 novembre. 19
Come verrà verificato nelle analisi successive, Vincenzo Consolo valorizza la prospettiva intertestuale e la parodia come forma specifica di un dialogo tra i testi che è diventata una delle sue tecniche preferite a cui ricorre. Lo scrittore nella maggior parte dei casi realizza questo ‘dialogo’ intertestuale riprendendo la voce altrui e reinterpretandola antiteticamente rispetto al testo di origine.
Cfr. M. Billi: Dialogo testuale e dialettica culturale. La parodia nel romanzo
Costruendo storie che erano una parodia della realtà, ma di una penetrazione e di una tale restituzione della verità che riuscivano ad anticipare lo svolgimento della realtà stessa, ad essere profetiche. La stessa cosa fece Pasolini, fuori della finzione letteraria, della parodia, con i suoi interventi sui giornali, con la forza dei suoi j’accuse, delle sue provocazioni e delle sue requisitorie, dei suoi Scritti corsari. Non li rimpiangeremo mai abbastanza questi due scrittori civili italiani. Nel mio pendolarismo tra la Sicilia e Milano c’è, prima di tutto, la mia vicenda umana, la mia storia di vita, che poi forse diventa vicenda intellettuale e letteraria 20. Questa coscienza estetica e letteraria nell’ambito della quale l’autore cerca di delineare la funzione e il significato delle componenti della cosiddetta “poetica negativa”21 si inscrive nella specificità della letteratura moderna. I protagonisti dei romanzi consoliani rappresentano un catalogo di atteggiamenti diversi orientati verso la lotta contro l’ingiustizia: l’angustia di Gioacchino Martinez ha accanimenti feroci: trovare un senso, placare un malessere, imboccare una “cerchia confidente”22, invece la presa di coscienza del Mandralisca, in realtà, manifesta la sua interna fecondità e incidenza a un livello diverso e anche più profondo 23. Prende così corpo una vicenda romanzesca non organicamente distesa ma articolata in alcuni episodi emblematici, funzionali del protagonista: un aristocratico di provincia, sincero ma cauto patriota, innamorato dell’arte e dell’archeologia, dedito soprattutto agli studi di erudizione scientifica. Proprio a costui accade di trovarsi spettatore degli eccidi di Alcara Li Fusi; ed è appunto la sua vocazione umanistica a consentirgli di capire la giustizia profonda contemporaneo di lingua inglese. In:
Dialettiche della parodia. A cura di M. Bonafin. Alessandria, Edizioni dell’Orso, 1997, p. 213. 20 V. Consolo: La poesia e la storia. In: Gli spazi della diversità. Atti del Convegno Internazionale. Rinnovamento del codice narrativo in Italia dal 1945 al 1992. Leuven — Louvain-la-Neuve — Namur — Bruxelles, 3—8 maggio 1993. Vol. 2. A cura di S. Vanvolsem, F. Musarra, B. Van den Bossche. Roma, Bulzoni, 1995, pp. 583—586. 21 R. Nycz: Literatura jako trop rzeczywistości. Kraków, Universitas, 2001, p. 17. 22 G. Amoroso: Il notaio della Via Lattea…, pp. 464—467. 23 Cfr. G.C. Ferretti: L’intelligenza e follia…
che anima la rivolta contro una legge di oppressione 24. Degna di nota è, senza dubbio, l’attenzione alla dimensione simbolica dei contenuti narrativi riguardanti gli atteggiamenti dei protagonisti, aspetto che lo scrittore non trascura, data la sua conoscenza delle questioni letterarie non solo dell’età antica ma anche della moderna. Ma Consolo collega l’aspetto simbolico e reale del problema nella convinzione che la letteratura dovrebbe conoscere il mondo e dare ragione e nome ai disastri dei nostri tempi. E secondo Giulio Ferroni dovremmo essergli grati “di questi lumi che vengono a rischiarare il nostro tempo cupo e notturno, la nostra notte fantasmagorica e telematica”25. Anche nello studio del passato la curiosità ha un peso considerevole, tanto da costruire un originale canone. Secondo Andrea Zanzotto la narrazione in questo caso non è un soliloquio, è sempre un rivolgersi ai molti che sicuramente partecipano ad una passione; anzi è quasi una preghiera rivolta a non si sa chi o che cosa, mormorata e insistente, interrotta da pause legate ad un loro tempo musicale, e in essa pare si salvaguardi almeno l’unità dell’io, di ogni “io” minacciato dall’oscura follia che irrompe fin dal primo stralunante racconto 26. I romanzi consoliani danno degno compimento a un’attività vissuta all’insegna della convinzione basata sul senso di giustizia, confermando quanto fosse ancor viva e inappagata nel loro autore la naturale propensione a parlare al posto altrui, al posto degli oppressi perché estranei al mezzo linguistico usato negli strati acculturati, il quale, precisa Christophe Charle “non permette loro di esprimere le proprie ragioni, e nemmeno le proprie speranze e la propria disperazione”27. I romanzi di Consolo costituiscono una traversata dei luoghi dell’impostura e cioè delle istituzioni: chiesa, scuola, famiglia, amministrazioni della giustizia, partito. L’argomento ricorrente è quello di fare conti con le credenze imposte o che s’impongono.
24 Cfr. V. Spinazzola: Un discorso facile e difficile. “L’Unità” 1976, il 4 luglio. 25 G. Ferroni: La sconfitta della notte. “L’Unità” 1992, il 27 aprile. 26 Cfr. A. Zanzotto: Vincenzo Consolo: ‘Le pietre di Pantalica’. In: Scritti sulla letteratura. Aure e disincanti nel Novecento italiano. Vol. 2. A cura di G.M. Villalta. Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2001, pp. 308—310. 27 Per le idee di Consolo sull’impegno letterario si veda la sua introduzione a C. Charle: Letteratura e potere. Palermo, Sellerio, 1979.
Scrittore — testimone — osservatore  Scrittore — testimone — osservatore Senza dubbio gli scritti di Consolo continuano a evidenziare la tensione fra l’autore e il testo, a sottolinearla, a tal punto che, tutta l’opera sembra apparire come una metafora dell’impossibilità di padroneggiare in modo assoluto del proprio testo. Questa inquietudine percorre l’opera di Consolo e unifica i suoi aspetti tematici. Se si scorrono i romanzi consoliani non si tarda ad accorgersi dei frutti dolceamari dell’esplorazione di larga parte della storia italiana. Nello sguardo mobile, accorto, pungente che lo scrittore volge al mondo contemporaneo c’è un relativismo prospettico, non nuovo nel suo pensiero, ma nutrito nello scrittore siciliano di affabile cultura e sostenuto da esperienze vissute. Nelle narrazioni di Consolo le funzioni di scrittore e di interprete si sono trovate accomunate nella medesima situazione. Non ci sono più le garanzie che consentono un’indipendenza e un’autenticità alle funzioni indicate o se sia possibile il ritorno ad un loro ruolo spirituale e umanistico. La diretta esperienza dei variegati costumi umani aiuta a comprendere la labilità dei parametri di giudizio. Consolo ha sempre agito come una memoria attenta e sensibile del passato che viene accostato agli avvenimenti più recenti di cui egli è testimone e interprete. In Nottetempo, casa per casa Consolo stabilisce implicitamente un nesso tra l’Italia degli anni Venti e quella degli anni Settanta, così come nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio tra il Risorgimento e gli anni Sessanta e nello Spasimo di Palermo tra gli anni Trenta e l’inizio degli anni Novanta, con le morti di Falcone e Borsellino. Rossend Arqués parla direttamente delle fasi storiche, tutte segnate da successive cadute della società isolana e continentale in un pozzo senza uscita e senza possibilità di riemersione 28. Ma è proprio la prospettiva questo fattore decisivo da cui si guarda alle opinioni degli uomini a mettere in crisi le false certezze. La testimonianza di Consolo ha un significato particolare se inserita nel
28 Cfr. R. Arqués: Teriomorfismo e malinconia. Una storia notturna della Sicilia: “Nottetempo, casa per casa” di Consolo. “Quaderns d’Italià” 2005, n. 10, p. 80. 48 
coevo dibattito sull’identità della cultura moderna e l’importanza del contributo del passato. L’oggettività è per lo scrittore un’autentica misura dell’impegno, in letteratura come nelle belle arti, e discrimina la percezione fenomenica e i processi cognitivi sottolineando la dimensione “forte” della letteratura. Questa convinzione trova la sua conferma nella constatazione consoliana secondo la quale lo scrivere diventa un confronto con la materia viva e la materia morta. Lo scrittore non vuole esclusivamente accettare l’immagine convenzionale della realtà conservata nelle abitudini e nei rituali. Tale punto di vista determina l’obiettivo fondamentale che, secondo Consolo, si realizza solo nella scrittura come l’unica possibilità di testimonianza, di protesta, e persino di riscatto. L’artista, attraverso l’arte della parola, registra la realtà inafferrabile fino ai tempi odierni, mostrandone la forma e l’importanza. L’ibridazione dei generi e dei codici serve a moltiplicare i punti di vista. Uno sguardo nostalgico alla memoria dei linguaggi in via d’estinzione vuole sottolineare una relazione tra stabilità e movimento, tra parola e immagine, tra superficialità e profondità simbolica. Il segno distintivo di un vero artista è proprio la facoltà di cambiare la parola in un elemento più sostanziale, più tangibile. Dunque la scrittura per Consolo può assumere diverse funzioni, anche quella confortativa, come nel caso di Petro, protagonista del romanzo Nottetempo, casa per casa. “Uuuhhh…” ululò prostrato a terra “uuhh… uhm… um… umm… umm… umm…” e in quei suoni fondi, molli, desiderava perdersi, sciogliere la testa, il petto. Sentì come ogni volta di giungere a un limite, a una soglia estrema. Ove gli era dato ancora d’arrestarsi, ritornare indietro, di tenere vivo nella notte il lume, nella bufera. E s’aggrappò alle parole, ai nomi di cose vere, visibili, concrete. Scandì a voce alta: “Terra. Pietra. Sènia. Casa. Forno. Pane. Ulivo. Carrubo. Sommacco. Capra. Sale. Asino. Rocca. Tempio. Cisterna. Mura. Ficodindia. Pino. Palma. Castello. Cielo. Corvo. Gazza. Colomba. Fringuello. Nuvola. Sole. Arcobaleno…” scandì come a voler rinominare, ricreare il mondo. Ricominciare dal momento in cui nulla era accaduto, nulla perduto ancora, la vicenda si svolgea serena, sereno il tempo. N, 38—39
Scrittore — testimone — osservatore
Questo frammento parla del grido, o meglio dell’urlo della Sicilia dolente che soffre di un male antico, raccolto da sempre da Consolo, tenuto sempre dentro, prima fatto vedere, ora esploso irrimediabilmente, anche se momentaneamente stemperato, alla fine del frammento, da questo chiasmo “la vicenda si svolgea serena, sereno il tempo”29. L’espressione artistica che trova la realizzazione nella scrittura diventa nella narrativa consoliana la testimonianza di una realtà che non è più trasparente e che di conseguenza genera una sensazione di incertezza e di mancanza di stabilizzazione. Il conforto è sempre la scrittura: raccontare può essere cedimento, debolezza, mentre ritirarsi in se stesso e tacere forse più vale. È la parallela alla lontananza geografica che a Petro sembra essere necessaria per avere dentro sé la chiarezza del dolore, e per riuscire a raccontarne30. Una forte credenza nell’ordine nascosto dei valori rende la scrittura consoliana responsabile ed eticamente stabile. Grazie a questa denotazione assiologica delle sue narrazioni, Consolo viene considerato lo scrittore dei campi esclusi dalla realtà non solo storica ma anche presente. I momenti delle narrazioni che riflettono sulle vicende umane evocano la pluralità delle circostanze in cui si verificano diversi atti abusivi. Il ridimensionamento della dignità umana imposto dagli sconvolgenti avvenimenti degli ultimi due secoli è analizzato con lo sguardo limpido e disincantato dell’uomo di ragione: il permanere di una giustizia-fiducia insiste nel fatto stesso dello scrivere, che colma, secondo Andrea Zanzotto, fa spazio, fa riapparire radici e racconta di una realtà siciliana divenuta, nonostante le molte sue luci, sempre più emblematica di una delle più devastanti malattie della società e della storia31. Ma l’intellettuale che spoglia l’universo del fascino della sicurezza superficiale pare consapevole dell’irreparabile perdita delle “favole antiche”. Nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio il punto di vista narrante nonché la voce etico-politica sono affidati non ad un personaggio del popolo ma ad un nobile siciliano, il barone Enrico Pirajno di 29
C. Ternullo: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 56. 30 Cfr. S. Mazzarella: Dell’olivo e dell’olivastro…, p. 64. 31 Cfr. A. Zanzotto: Vincenzo Consolo…, pp. 308—310.
Mandralisca. Questi, pur essendo un aristocratico, non è “un pazzo allegro o un imbecille”, né tantomeno un intellettuale scettico e malinconico come, per esempio, il principe di Salina nel Gattopardo. Consolo polemizza idealmente con il modello proposto da Tomasi di una cultura “della crisi”. Flora Di Legami aggiunge che anche il barone di Mandralisca è animato da un criticismo smagato, ma non rinuncia alla fiducia in possibili trasformazioni sociali a favore degli oppressi32. Consolo, come autore moderno, è autonomo e il suo sapere non lo si può staccare dalle sue primarie condizioni linguistiche, culturali, empiriche e soggettive. Rendendosi conto delle conseguenze di questa dislocazione, lo scrittore cerca di stabilire il nesso tra il ruolo dell’intellettuale e l’importanza della cognizione. Rimanendo dunque ben conscio della varietà delle impressioni umane e della loro incongruenza Consolo, attraverso la narrazione dei fatti esclusi dalla versione ufficiale della storia del Risorgimento italiano, vuole mettere in rilievo l’importanza del fondamento gnoseologico e dei principi della conoscenza. Per precisare la definizione dell’atteggiamento ideologico di Consolo, vale la pena rievocare la constatazione di Linda Hutcheon che la sua “è una riscrittura consapevole e autoriflessiva della scrittura storiografica tradizionale”33. A ribadire questa sembra valido ricorrere a Vittorio Spinazzola che rievoca Consolo stesso: “Non siamo innocenti, questo è certo; si cerca di evitare, per quanto possibile, la malafede e la menzogna”. Sarebbe difficile non essere d’accordo con Sebastiano Addamo, che vede in Consolo la continuazione di una preminente direzione verso l’esterno, verso il mondo e l’uomo, dato che il suo punto di partenza è una fede disperata, “una fede a onta di tutto e nonostante tutto”34. Però è altrettanto vero che, anche se lo scrittore usa la terza persona per narrare, si immedesima con i suoi protagonisti parlando dei problemi del mondo attuale 35.
32 Cfr. F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, pp. 23—24. 33 Cfr. L. Hutcheon: A Poetics of Postmodernism, History, Fiction, Theory. London, Routledge, 1988. 34 S. Addamo: Linguaggio e barocco in Vincenzo Consolo. In: Idem: Oltre le figure. Palermo, Sellerio, 1989, pp. 121—125. 35 Ibidem.
In questa riflessione, oltre che un rifiuto alle deduzioni spesso ostentate dai critici di professione, vi è percepibile anche la fiducia nelle risorse della facoltà autocritica. Lo conferma la constatazione seguente di Vittorio Spinazzola, tale da indurre a un sensibile ottimismo sulla disponibilità emotiva degli intellettuali illuminati a schierarsi dalla parte del proletariato 36. Nella prosa consoliana vi è un aspetto edificante privo dell’amarezza provocatoria peculiare degli scrittori siciliani. Lo spostamento verso il Nord costituisce la condizione indispensabile dell’avventura culturale di Consolo, necessaria all’acquisizione e alla comunicazione del sapere. Il motivo dello spostamento nei suoi romanzi si rivela, allora, il luogo privilegiato per raccogliere testimonianze sulla relatività, l’incongruenza, la sproporzione, la fragilità delle categorie umane nel tempo circoscritto. Elena Germano osserva acutamente che la Sicilia rappresentata nel primo romanzo di Consolo, intitolato La ferita dell’aprile non è “una dimensione geografica: essa è soprattutto la dimensione morale che caratterizza l’esistenza dei personaggi di questa storia, che ne condiziona i rapporti con la realtà e le reazioni”37. Il relativismo prospettico in cui Consolo si mostra esperto non impedisce, dunque, di stabilire un rapporto fra le discordanze, perché dal parallelo e dalla comparazione nasce la curiosità, la conoscenza e la comprensione. I testi consoliani diventano strumenti della critica della modernità, delle sue illusioni e della cultura moderna. Tale poetica può riprendere la problematica dell’esperienza sia esteriore che interiore servendosi della metafora dello sguardo. L’osservazione dei costumi e degli stereotipi del carattere regionale si congiunge alla massima efficacia espressiva in alcuni frammenti della prosa consoliana. La pratica degli uomini, l’interesse per l’esplorazione e gli scambi si organizzano in sequenze collegate fra loro come nelle parti dedicate alle dolorose sorti dei protagonisti, e una ricca panoramica delle scoperte di diverse abitudini. Giusta
36 Cfr. V. Spinazzola: Un discorso facile e difficile… 37 E. Germano: Politica e Mezzogiorno, I, 2 (aprile—giugno 1964). In: A.M. Morace: Orbite novecentesche. Napoli, Edizioni Scolastiche Italiane, 2001, p. 193.
mente si accorge di questa caratteristica Elena Germano: “La seduzione della scrittura consoliana agisce soprattutto sull’aspetto visivo, gioca con l’immagine, lo stimolo ottico38”. Consolo pone al centro del suo secondo romanzo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, una rinnovata inchiesta sul rapporto potere— classi subalterne e sul conseguente nodo fra scrittura e oralità, che egli presenta come espressione di un divario sociale. Flora Di Legami constata addirittura che all’acutezza della ragione, esemplata metaforicamente nell’ironico sguardo dell’ignoto marinaio, il narratore affida il compito di denunciare le “imposture” della storia39. In un osservatore così acuto e aggiornato è forte la consapevolezza dell’integrazione esistente ormai fra i mondi diversi, tale da creare persino una certa conformità nell’atteggiamento mentale. Nel suo primo romanzo, La ferita dell’aprile lo sguardo memoriale del narratore e quello reale dell’adolescente che osserva e filtra la realtà degli adulti (con i suoi problemi e contrasti), conferiscono alla narrazione un timbro favoloso e insieme vivido40. Il mese di aprile, ferito e dolente, diventa metafora di una giovinezza difficile e sofferente. Questo espediente retorico della “natura che sente” non è originale, dato che l’hanno già adottato i romantici e poi, tra gli altri, Eliot a cui Consolo ha attinto direttamente41. L’obiettivo principale era quello di conserva
Si veda ad esempio il contributo già citato di Geerts sui sapori della cucina consoliana e i numerosi passi del romanzo dedicati ai piaceri culinari (fra l’altro, pp. 45, 51, 56—57). Cfr. W. Geerts: L’euforia a tavola. Su Vincenzo Consolo. In: Soavi sapori della cultura italiana. Atti del XIII Congresso dell’A.I.P.P., Verona/ Soave, 27—29 agosto 1998. Ed. B. Van den Bossche. Firenze, Cesati, 2000. 39 Cfr. F. Di Legami: Vincenzo Consolo…, p. 22. 40 Ibidem, p. 14. 41 Oltre al titolo del romanzo di debutto La ferita dell’aprile, pure nell’ultimo romanzo Lo spasimo di Palermo vi è evidente una forte presenza della poetica di T.S. Eliot: “Let us go then, You and I, / When the evening is spread out against the sky…” [Allora andiamo, tu ed io, Quando la sera si stende contro il cielo…] (T.S. Eliot: Il canto d’amore di J. Alfred Prufrock. In: Idem: Opere 1904.1939. Milano, Bompiani, 2001, pp. 277—285).
Consolo introduce, nell’originale inglese, il verso eliotiano alla fine del quinto capitolo del romanzo per mettere in rilievo la scomparsa di ogni speranza, la mancanza della ragione e la conclusione del nòstos (non vi mancano i riferimenti al capolavoro omerico), del ritorno alla terra di origine. 53 l’influsso della natura di cui parlava anche Walter Benjamin42. Tale esperienza poetica ammette il fenomeno della “reciprocità sensuale” e trasgredisce i limiti di una semplice antropomorfizzazione e tende a rovesciare la prospettiva e la percezione. L’uomo viene percepito da un punto di vista non più umano, tuttavia non “disumano”. Le descrizioni penetranti si realizzano grazie alla lingua che non parla ma guarda e con l’occhio ammassa diversi elementi componendone un mosaico variopinto. Angelo Guglielmi costata che i romanzi di Consolo assomigliano a una sorta di magazzino che non conserva esemplari scelti o in qualche modo preziosi ma semplici cose gravi di tutta la materialità del quotidiano43. A paragone di molte osservazioni di costume, sfruttate dallo scrittore per la sua indagine morale, non sono poche nei romanzi le descrizioni di paesaggi legati alla memoria autobiografica, come ad esempio quella presente nel romanzo intitolato Retablo che è un autentico elogio della Sicilia, terra di nascita dello scrittore. Questo testo è permeato dalla presenza di chi apprezza la bellezza e le sue rappresentazioni nelle arti figurative. La retorica dello sguardo, e in particolare lo sguardo del pittore, legge la realtà nel corso del viaggio. Il protagonista del romanzo è un pittore, che vede uomini, palazzi, rovine e paesaggi con spiccata sensibilità visiva e professionale. Dato che non si tratta di un pittore immaginario ma di uno dei più vivaci esponenti del surrealismo e della pittura metafisica e visionaria italiana contemporanea, Fabrizio Clerici, fatto rivivere indietro nel tempo, per virtù fantastorica, in un’età carica di accensioni barocche e romantiche, la narrazione assume una dimensione più verosimile44. Attento osservatore dei costumi, Consolo dedica un’ampia parte della sua narrazione alla riflessione sulla natura umana. piamento eseguito da Consolo tra il protagonista e la voce narrante interrompe il necessario distacco perché possa instillare l’autobiografia intellettuale nella finzione romanzesca.
Cfr. W. Benjamin: O kilku motywach u Baudelaire’a. Przeł. B. Surowska. „Przegląd Humanistyczny” 1970, z. 6, p. 113. 43 Cfr. A. Guglielmi: A cuore freddo. “L’Ora” 1978, il 12 maggio. 44 Cfr. R. Ceserani: Vincenzo Consolo. Retablo. “Belfagor” [Firenze] 1988, anno XLIII, p. 233. 54 
Mentre andavo, al vespero, per la strada Aragona, col mio passo spedito, sudato per il cammino lungo e per il peso grave delle bisacce, le campane della Magione sonarono l’Avemaria. M’impuntai e dissi l’orazione. Quando, alla croce, mi sentii chiamare: “Frate monaco, frate monaco, pigliate”. E vidi calare da una finestra un panaro con dentro ‘na pagnottella e un pugno di cerase. “Pe’ l’anima purgante del mio sposo”. Alzai gli occhi e vidi nel riquadro, ah, la mia sventura!, la donna che teneva la funicella del panaro e accanto una fanciulla di quindici o sedici anni, la mantellina a lutto sulla testa che lei fermava con graziosa mano sotto il mento. E gli occhi tenea bassi per vergogna, ma da sotto il velario delle ciglia fuggivan lampi d’un fuoco di smeraldo. Mai m’ero immaginato, mai avevo visto in vita mia, in carne o pittato, un angelo, un serafino come lei. R, 21 La descrizione del primo incontro del frate Isidoro con Rosalia assume caratteri antitetici e ugualmente positivi. Due sono le indicazioni che si possono trarre dal raffronto presentato nel frammento scelto. Da un lato, l’osservazione morale muove da una persuasa e matura consapevolezza delle contraddizioni e dei limiti dell’uomo. Il frate rimane assorto nelle preghiere e dedito alla sua vocazione fino al momento in cui vede, per un istante solo, una bellissima fanciulla. Le sue qualità riferite a quelle di un angelo rievocano un modo di paragonare peculiare per gli stilnovisti. Dall’altro, Consolo è portato a credere che le qualità morali si manifestino con maggiore chiarezza e in modo positivo solo nell’interazione sociale. L’abbandono del servizio spirituale a favore di quello secolare, mostra la figura di Isidoro nella sua umanistica pienezza. Se fra i romanzi si prendono in esame i momenti in cui si riflette sugli ambiti morali, sui sentimenti e sui comportamenti umani, s’impone con evidenza una costante significativa: il ricorso al linguaggio della pittura e a formule enciclopediche per esprimere i risultati dell’analisi etica. Il che, naturalmente, non stupisce in uno scrittore così intimamente permeato dalla forma mentis logica, ma indica quanto sia importante conservare uno sguardo limpido e rigoroso nell’osservare anche i fenomeni morali. Quanto più Consolo concepisce come ambigua, volubile e sfuggente la psiche umana, tanto più prova a definirla con l’aiuto di immagini semplici, essenziali, analitiche.

Si pensi al paragone fra le proprietà dell’elenco naturalistico e le facoltà dei fenomeni uditivi: “mare che valica il cancello”, visivi: “nel cielo appare la sfera d’opalina”, olfattivi: “spande odorosi fiati, olezzi” e infine tattili: “che m’ha punto, ahi!”, presenti nel brano seguente: Rosalia. Rosa e lia. Rosa che ha inebriato, rosa che ha confuso, rosa che ha sventato, rosa che ha róso, il mio cervello s’è mangiato. Rosa che non è rosa, rosa che è datura, gelsomino, bàlico e viola; rosa che è pomelia, magnolia, zàgara e cardenia. Poi il tramonto, al vespero, quando nel cielo appare la sfera d’opalina, e l’aere sfervora, cala misericordia di frescura e la brezza del mare valica il cancello del giardino, scorre fra colonnette e palme del chiostro in clausura, coglie, coinvolge, spande odorosi fiati, olezzi, distillati, balsami grommosi. Rosa che punto m’ha, ahi!, con la sua spina velenosa in su nel cuore. R, 17 A tale esigenza di chiarezza si presta particolarmente la struttura logico-espressiva dei paragoni, che è modello molto frequente nella narrativa di Consolo. Come nel caso del protagonista del romanzo intitolato Retablo, Fabrizio Clerici: la sconfinata facoltà visionaria, la capacità di fare esplodere attraverso lo strumento linguistico, ogni dato della realtà in fantasia diventa il mezzo diretto della rappresentazione della realtà45. “All’artista non rimane che guardare da lontano” — come afferma in Retablo don Gennaro, maestro di canto: “Stiamo ai margini, ai bordi della strada, guardiamo, esprimiamo, e talvolta con invidia, con nostalgia struggente allunghiamo la mano per toccare la vita che ci scorre per davanti” (R, 197). Non è la prima volta che Consolo sceglie un quadro per dare l’avvio a un romanzo: nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio si trattava di un dipinto di Antonello da Messina, qui, al centro della vicenda si trova il dipinto a scomparti, a scene,
45 Cfr. L. Sciascia: Cruciverba. Milano, Adelphi Edizioni, 1998, p. 43. 56
questo quadro delle meraviglie che incanta i popolani e che è poi una citazione da Cervantes. Come la parola stessa “retablo” suona misteriosamente, così anche i quadri dipinti da Fabrizio Clerici risultano misteriosi perché sembra che rappresentino sogni e incubi. In questo contesto bisogna essere d’accordo con Paolo Mauri, secondo cui, in effetti, il pittore diventa narratore di un’altra realtà46. Sotto lo splendore del clima barocco è molto visibile la trama drammatica dell’amore insoddisfatto. Basta affinare lo sguardo e osservare senza pregiudizi l’intreccio per comprendere le reali motivazioni dell’agire, le ragioni o i torti della morale. La scrittura per quadri, per scene successive, facilita all’occhio indagatore una penetrazione ai margini dei fatti che costituiscono la vera e propria prassi della narrazione. L’adottata da Consolo retorica dello sguardo viene rafforzata dal procedimento straniante. Nel frammento sopraccitato il richiamo all’atteggiamento distante enfatizza le inconciliabili: “invidia” e “nostalgia”. Sintomo delle ambivalenze radicate nella morale è anche l’uso disinteressato dell’espressione: “ai margini, ai bordi della strada”. La distanza che domina in questo caso il comportamento conduce a conseguenze paradossali: secondo la convinzione comune l’artista, e specialmente il pittore dovrebbe avvicinarsi all’oggetto, qui invece la meta risulta inafferrabile. Per questa ragione Consolo, studioso e appassionato divulgatore di pittura, cerca di conciliare le argomentazioni della “logica comune” con i procedimenti delle “arti figurative”, accreditando ad ambedue la propria fiducia. Invece nel quadro tracciato dal romanzo intitolato Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio la doppiezza della morale e l’inautenticità della vita risaltano con netta evidenza grazie all’espediente formale della sproporzione, nuovamente fondata sullo snodo del paragone nel frammento seguente: Entrò nello studio assieme a Interdonato e chiuse la porta dietro le spalle. […] “Sto solo attendento adesso a un’opera che riguarda la generale malacologia terrestre e fluviatile della Sicilia che da parecchio tempo m’impegna fino in fondo e mi procura 46
Cfr. P. Mauri: Consolo: sognando il passato. In: Idem: L’opera imminente. Diario di un critico. Torino, Einaudi, 1998.
affanno…” spiegò il Mandralisca buttandosi a sedere come stanco sopra la sedia dietro la scrivania. “E voi pensate, Mandralisca, che in questo momento siano tutti lì ad aspettare di sapere i fatti intimi e privati, delle scorze e delle bave, dei lumaconi siciliani?” “Non dico, non dico…” disse il Mandralisca un po’ ferito. “Ma io l’ho promesso, già da quindici anni, dal tempo della stampa della mia memoria sopra la malcologia delle Madonie…” “Ma Mandralisca, vi rendete conto di tutto quello che è successo in questi quindici anni e del momento che viviamo?” “Io non vi permetto!…” scattò il Mandralisca. SIM, 43 Al centro del dialogo, che procede in toni acri e pungenti, è il contrasto tra una cultura aristocratica e separata, “la malacologia terrestre e fluviatile”, di cui il barone siciliano si sentiva fiero e pago, e un’attualità di eventi (i moti risorgimentali del ’56 a Cefalù e poi l’insurrezione di Alcara nel ’60) rispetto ai quali non si poteva non prendere posizione. Qui la frase pronunciata dal barone si sostanzia di un paragone con la moderna ottica, per sottolineare l’illusorietà degli studi se rimangono distanti dalle questioni ordinarie della realtà. Al modello di necessità ed obbligo si affiancano alcune riflessioni di diverso tono, che correggono l’eccesso di autocritica del protagonista e incitano a seguire l’impulso delle passioni. L’inclinazione verso l’approfondimento del sapere e il fascino dell’avventura possono unirsi, in effetti, con l’attrazione per la giustizia e la dominazione della ragione. Attraverso il discorso del Mandralisca con l’Interdonato Consolo esibisce una convinzione morale rilevata dal rapido ammonimento e nello stesso tempo dalla domanda retorica. La lezione di Consolo va qui al di là dell’esempio stilistico: si tratta di un’affinità nell’indagare l’uomo con acume e ironia. Seguendo ottica adottata, con lo stesso spregiudicato realismo psicologico Consolo sostiene che nessun’azione è veramente pura, disinteressata e schietta allo sguardo di chi con la luce della mente vede addentro le cose. È il caso del padre di Petro, protagonista del romanzo Nottetempo, casa per casa sofferente di licantropia che attraverso questa forma di teriomorfismo rappresenta il dolore universale. Si spalancò la porta d’una casa e un ululare profondo, come di dolore crudo e senza scampo, il dolore del tempo, squarciò il silenzio di tutta la campagna. Un’ombra rotolò sotto la luna, tra i rovi e le rocce di calcare. Corse, uomo o bestia, come inseguito, assillato d’altre bestie o demoni invisibili. Ed eccitò col suo lamento, col suo latrar dolente, uccelli cani capre. Fu un concerto allor di pigolii di guaiti di belati quale al risveglio del mondo sull’aurora o al presentimento, per onde d’aria o il vibrare sommesso della terra, d’un diluvio rovinoso, d’un tremuoto. N, 6 Il padre del protagonista diventa vittima di forze incontrollabili causate da uno stato di depressione permanente e l’espressione terrificante del lato scuro della sua psiche viene accompagnato da una facoltà di ipersensibilità che gli permette di vedere e sentire le cose in un modo ben più profondo. Seguendo le ricerche di Julia Kristeva in merito, si può azzardare la constatazione che il depresso sia un osservatore lucido, che vigila notte e giorno sulle sue sventure e sui suoi malesseri, e l’ossessione di vigilanza lo lascia perennemente dissociato dalla sua vita affettiva nel corso dei periodi “normali” che separano gli attacchi melanconici47. Così assegnando allo sguardo un ruolo demiurgico, Consolo crede nell’efficacia dei buoni ammaestramenti e non dubita che il senso della vista possa indirizzare alla giusta percezione. Dall’accostamento fra morale e pittura risulta più chiara l’esigenza di consolidare la “purezza” e la “forza” di un’azione con la “libertà” e la “disinvoltura” della libera creazione. Un atteggiamento morale di natura può derivare da un’assidua applicazione che solo nell’uomo veramente abile si muta in una seconda natura.
47 Cfr. J. Kristeva: Sole nero. Depressione e melanconia. Milano, Feltrinelli, 1998, pp. 52—53

Vincenzo Consolo. Modernismo e meridionalismo

da Mario De Laurentiis 

Le strategie linguistiche e strutturali mediante le quali Consolo costruisce la densità della propria parola letteraria, torcendola e caricandola nella sfida impossibile alla consistenza della realtà, e la stessa idea consoliana della parola, mettono capo a tensioni e aspirazioni solitamente rubricate sotto il segno della «poesia», nella costellazione, per intenderci, che si muove tra simbolismo e modernismo. La stessa ricorrente tentazione dell’afasia come esito della volontà di troppo dire è del resto segnale non dubbio di queste ascendenze. Non a caso già dal romanzo d’esordio, e fino alle ultime prove, T.S. Eliot è uno dei numi tutelari di Consolo. Allo stesso modo, per tutta la vita Consolo non ha smesso di sottolineare il proprio rifiuto radicale di appartenere alla tradizione propriamente romanzesca, sospetta perché troppo incline a cedere alle lusinghe di una facile leggibilità, ad usum commercii. Prove narrative le sue, quindi, ma protese verso la poesia. D’altro canto, non ci sono dubbi sulla necessità di accostare il suo progetto, letterario ma anche politico-culturale, alla tradizione meridionalistica, nel cui solco si forma, e che non ha mai smesso di operare, anche quando Consolo è andato prendendo strade assai diverse: come già negli anni Ottanta, con libri decisamente atipici come Lunaria e lo stesso Retablo, e sempre più negli anni Novanta. Stiamo così toccando l’altra questione di fondo: quella dell’ossessione della Sicilia. «Scrivo sempre di Sicilia perché non ci si può allontanare dagli anni della propria memoria» ha dichiarato lo scrittore: il che vuol dire, ed è un altro punto decisivo, che l’invenzione letteraria deve nascere dall’esperienza, con la quale entrerà in tensione, sforzandosi di esorcizzare i propri fatali limiti con l’accumulo e la pluralizzazione della forma.

Certo, Consolo parla di tutto sub specie Siciliae, tenendo insieme, in modo decisamente peculiare, la proiezione verso una dimensione di esemplarità e la messa a fuoco dettagliata di tratti storicamente identificati, ricostruiti con precisione maniacale. La sua sicilianità concede in questo senso abbastanza poco alla fuga per la tangente di una a-storica condizione universale, così caratteristica invece di altri autori siciliani, da Pirandello a Vittorini. In innumerevoli occasioni Consolo ha ricordato la sua ferma volontà di approdare alla metafora per via di storia, secondo il sempre attuale, magistrale modello manzoniano: «La lezione del Manzoni è proprio la metafora. Ci siamo sempre chiesti perché abbia ambientato il suo romanzo nel Seicento e non nell’Ottocento. Oltre che per il rovello per la giustizia, proprio per dare distanza alla sua inarrestabile metafora. L’Italia del Manzoni sembra davvero eterna, inestinguibile». L’esemplarità della Sicilia fa tutt’uno in Consolo con la sua peculiarità: che ci fa capire com’è l’Italia proprio perché è un caso estremo. Si potrebbe persino ipotizzare che, mutatis mutandis, a quello che egli scrive della Sicilia possa accadere in futuro qualcosa di simile a quanto già accaduto con la Lucania di Carlo Levi: ridiventata fruibile e attuale perché ricontestualizzata in «un quadro afroasiatico e latinoamericano». La Sicilia di Consolo vale come un’Italia estrema, e però anche come campione fin troppo vero di innumerevoli Sud del mondo. Per altri versi, la Sicilia di Consolo esibisce un cortocircuito di opposti, oscillando fra il vagheggiamento memoriale di un luogo che avrebbe potuto conciliare bellezza storica e naturale, vitalità e cultura, desiderio e conoscenza, e la constatazione, sempre più addolorata e indignata, dell’orrore reale, dell’ingiustizia perpetuata, della collusione eterna fra violenza criminale e violenza istituzionale. La Sicilia è un inferno, insomma, tanto quanto avrebbe potuto essere un paradiso. E la Sicilia è sempre solo la Sicilia: anzi no, è dappertutto.

Il progetto, ma forse dovremmo parlare piuttosto di dovere e di esigenza insopprimibile, di scrivere sempre di Sicilia coincide con la ferma convinzione che l’impresa della scrittura letteraria debba farsi portatrice di uno sguardo critico nei confronti della realtà, e implichi una dimensione etica, implicitamente o esplicitamente politica. Consolo ha infatti svolto per quasi cinquant’anni anche un’intensa attività giornalistica, della quale una larga percentuale è espressione di una diretta militanza civile. Restando però nell’ambito della scrittura letteraria, egli ha delineato, con un’originalità e un rigore teorico che hanno pochi termini di paragone in Italia, una possibile coincidenza fra espressività ed eticità, dove il permanente impegno civile deve identificarsi con la specificità della scrittura, cioè con l’impegno formale. Chiusa la stagione dell’engagement, per Consolo lo scrittore deve fare il proprio mestiere, fino in fondo, senza compromessi: solo così la scrittura può guadagnare lo spessore etico adeguato alle proprie aspirazioni, conoscitive non meno che estetiche. D’altro canto, chi scrive scrive, e dunque non può ignorare che scrivendo rinuncia al diretto impegno politico. Di conseguenza, i paradossi della parola letteraria, della sua pochezza e della sua titanica presunzione si rifrangono e ripetono nella compresenza costante di aperta politicità e senso di colpa dell’intellettuale, sempre abitato dalla sofferta consapevolezza della propria distanza dall’azione reale. Da questo punto di vista, Consolo ha molte cose in comune con Vittorio Sereni, e con lo stesso Franco Fortini, che del resto frequentava.
L’orgoglioso dovere della scrittura comporta così un permanente rimorso, che confina col senso d’inferiorità. Persino la dimensione utopica, pure evocata con tanta forza da Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, non smette in realtà di mescolarsi con la cattiva coscienza, con un irriducibile senso di colpa. Ecco l’utopia del barone Mandralisca:

E gli altri, che mai hanno raggiunto i dritti più sacri e elementari, la terra e il pane, la salute e l’amore, la pace, la gioja e l’istruzione, questi dico, e sono la più parte, perché devono intender quelle parole a modo nostro? Ah, tempo verrà in cui da soli conquisteranno que’ valori, ed essi allora li chiameranno con parole nuove, vere per loro, e giocoforza anche per noi, vere perché i nomi saranno intieramente riempiti dalle cose. (SIM, qui alle pp. 216-7)

Questo sogno di un linguaggio che abolisca il divario fra le parole e le cose assomiglia molto alla permanente tensione di Consolo verso una parola portatrice di una densità tanto speciale da farla assomigliare a una cosa vera. Ma persino qui, dove tanto più la voce del personaggio pare confondersi con quella dell’autore, siamo obbligati a diffidare, e a prendere atto della permanente polifonia della scrittura consoliana; quel sogno infatti deve essere percepito come nobile, sì, ma impossibile, e persino mistificatore: «Quello non è il pensiero dell’autore, ma del Mandralisca, dell’intellettuale che cerca di scaricarsi la coscienza, di alleviare i sensi di colpa donando il suo patrimonio al popolo di Cefalù, nella speranza che le nuove generazioni “possano scrivere da sé la storia”. Certo, questa soluzione è ingenua, se non demagogica».

Ports as locus of the Mediterranean imaginary Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo

by
Maria Roberta Vella
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
Master of Arts in Literary Tradition and Popular Culture
August 2014
Faculty of Arts
University of Malta

I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions.
II
Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12
1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20
2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38
3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo
Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69
4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?.
III
Abstract

The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between
civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot.
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1
Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea
(Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104
2
region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
4
of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55
6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the
Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region.
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. 
They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature
shaping the way in which history and culture developed.
The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in
literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the
Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo
Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by
Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two
different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different
periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and
somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore
recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the
authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that
the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on
8
the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the
region, a rich imaginary is created.
The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security
and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a
country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller.
Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience.
9
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power.
The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief,
need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes
of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in
common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a
5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010)
10
spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The
ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence
of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the
Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this
sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the
Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other
hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage.
6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II
(Fontana press: 19 8 6)
11
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the
Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today,
in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014)
www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February,
2014)
13
‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning.
The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it
purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. 
Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and
although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15
1.4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies,
contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.
16
2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients.
17
The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow
constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996)
12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike.
13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007)
19
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372
20
figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009)
21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean.
Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same
contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the
MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger
macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.

‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie
nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure
-penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero
all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17
‘Drunken songs and curses rise up
in the suburban tavern. Here, too,
I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is
drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18
16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
\V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372
22
Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’
with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
23
have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant
geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical
complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986)
20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011)
24
natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love,
between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
25
infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor:
26
‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si
annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il
superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita
come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22
‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we
find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of
limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio”
and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
27
number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
28
Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern
or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the
stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean,
that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea
routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large
and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey
is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
29
deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25
‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of
a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’
This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from
Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010)
30
place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself.
27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
31
Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation
between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56
30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29
32
‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques
and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the
ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural
voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the
quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming
equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history.
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008)
34
and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and
identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25
35
clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una
fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono
i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture,
al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce
l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 
‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a
finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places
where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are
numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one
starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that
give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature.
34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi
(Garzanti elefanti: 2008)
35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53
36
The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s
envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination.
37
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)

38
the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself:
‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured
history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or
restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that
the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole.
37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08
39
The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the
fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards
the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014)
40
eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41
naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere
in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility
The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an
expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and
cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of
spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the
Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage
throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that
could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were
adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As
Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods
were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan
and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to
41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011)
43
divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting.
The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in
the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can
also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that
in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often
projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean.
42 Ibid pp.443
43 Ibid pp.443
44
Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean,
interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and
customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto
have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural
interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in
Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45
voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a
personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may
intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region.
It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom
the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural
sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion.
In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a
great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46
in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical
catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is
unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era
where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47
paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole
and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time.
One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the
acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per
Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The
acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R
stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication.
48
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication
The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled
with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common
language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In
the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea:
49
‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and
morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component,
exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and
which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224
47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247)
50
speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca
Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146
51
lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made
when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the
Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the
lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined
territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess.
In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in
culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate:
‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir;
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50
The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by
French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that
gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s
main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf
50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143
53
Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua
franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates,
fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate
with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul,
from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early
decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto”
developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian,
51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
54
French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and
words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own
basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to
linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
55
language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language
as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo
mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in
maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in
spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle
sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53
‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin.
It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine,
sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic.
53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237
56
And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have
developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and
developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout
the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of
Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture.
57
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction.
Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80
58
been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is
undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the
region have taken place.
The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean
itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural
exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions
which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence
allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange.
Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the
‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and
amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the
region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region.
As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined
to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and
therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The
59
Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place.
Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes
itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction
between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the
importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean.
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo
‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio
simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57
56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese
(Mesogea: 2000) pp.7
60
‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a
symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’
The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich
would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has
fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries
built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of
authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse
about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary.
Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian
immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his
61
writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin
especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about
his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose
the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole.
Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the
region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel
agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found.
‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che
ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un
piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58
‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one
usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The
Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’
The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who
wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure,
and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and
happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the
Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He
pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean
58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea:
2000) pp.17
62
imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself.
The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used
for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem
externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or
artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since
the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on
interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves
that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63
perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was
fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a
constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary
other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more
organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and
so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the
opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own.
The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a
comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60
, she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined.
It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on
59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
64
land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely
lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea.
Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in
the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute.
The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because
it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the
Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen
through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story
that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of
letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in
Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is
identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a
61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010)
65
voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like
Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of
travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return.
Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he
manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being
built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding
stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a
greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice
violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a
deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In
L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62
, Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds
a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the
modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean
imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed
Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home
62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006)
66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have
maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the
harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be
positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a
positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way
Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their
battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the
Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the
imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such
as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the
recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses
on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His
imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on
repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities.
67
Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from
the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on
the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the
Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille
managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a
Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the
region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways
of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and
identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist,
develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a
Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region.
The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something
that is common, something that is part of a collective memory.
The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a
Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and
on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape
our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal
encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each
author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting
of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular
68
culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it
often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the
sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of
mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. 
Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience
various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the
Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that
managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts.
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture
The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of
popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions.
To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind
the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new
means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been
compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology.
One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as
a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering
the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most
relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the
internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance,
shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use.
The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of
conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam
Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the
traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
70
‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are
rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy
but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most
visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64
The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the
time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the
place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies
in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the
geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic
centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and
this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the
sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the
position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie.
When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media
m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed
Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71
unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The
documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision.
72
A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city
that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and
traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as
crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural
heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement
that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the
ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer.
Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the
Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time
which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying
Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In
the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of
65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014)
66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003)
73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds.
This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus.
What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various
images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver.
The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the
way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour
repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between
67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014)
75
Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French
movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the
country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study.
4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours.
Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to
mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The
harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour.
77
5 Conclusion
The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the
myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed
independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that
have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of
the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68
From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a
place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the
outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by
maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has
developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction
with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a
cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer.
In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre
of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’,
most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the
68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
78
Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its
inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance
with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and
literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and
architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person
approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a
symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which
assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the
‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view
the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that
managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one
hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region
because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes.
On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their
own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also
69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society.
5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean
One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his
The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being
cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different
7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
80
elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the
collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from
reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever
stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social
structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary.
Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are
71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81
accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond
these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself.
Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers.
The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary
comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars.
From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean
holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory.
Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
82
Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor
who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the
Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the
Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining
different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond
the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed
curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that
a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that
Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of
the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an
everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost
different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a
shared Mediterranean imaginary.
The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the
Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern
created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding
similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the
83
Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear
as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and
sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors
are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but
aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different
circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not
aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in
itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is
able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience.
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour
Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean
imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be
taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the
Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity.
Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex
84
identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable.
85
Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the
Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he
always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or
rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things.
72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000)
86
Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived
most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’
country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of
his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person
living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous
identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable.
The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and
Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is
evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 
87
concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as
explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity:
‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical,
coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious
c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and
contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past;
it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually
corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy
choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future,
though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national
borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus,
horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely
a legacy of the past.’ 73
In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may
be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean
history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and
everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now.
The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very
important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary,
73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8
88
being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher.
A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in
understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity
usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common
goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars
show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite
difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study
itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that
contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’.
All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the
sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to
write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region,
89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds
residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that
I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in
his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean
needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in
the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins
Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him
psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as
a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own
identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the
actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an
‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be
transported through time.
The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and
thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of
the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical
meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for
anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself.
90
The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help
of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in
which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal
encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the
region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity.
91
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97 

I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions.
II
Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12
1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20
2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38
3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo
Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69
4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?.
III
Abstract

The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between
civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot.
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1
Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea
(Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104
2
region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
4
of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55
6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the
Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region.
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. 
They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature
shaping the way in which history and culture developed.
The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in
literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the
Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo
Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by
Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two
different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different
periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and
somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore
recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the
authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that
the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on
8
the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the
region, a rich imaginary is created.
The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security
and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a
country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller.
Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience.
9
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power.
The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief,
need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes
of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in
common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a
5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010)
10
spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The
ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence
of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the
Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this
sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the
Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other
hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage.
6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II
(Fontana press: 19 8 6)
11
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the
Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today,
in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014)
www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February,
2014)
13
‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning.
The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it
purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. 
Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and
although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15
1.4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies,
contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.
16
2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients.
17
The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow
constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996)
12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike.
13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007)
19
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372
20
figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009)
21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean.
Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same
contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the
MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger
macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.

‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie
nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure
-penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero
all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17
‘Drunken songs and curses rise up
in the suburban tavern. Here, too,
I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is
drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18
16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
\V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372
22
Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’
with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
23
have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant
geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical
complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986)
20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011)
24
natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love,
between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
25
infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor:
26
‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si
annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il
superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita
come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22
‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we
find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of
limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio”
and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
27
number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
28
Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern
or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the
stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean,
that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea
routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large
and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey
is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
29
deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25
‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of
a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’
This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from
Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010)
30
place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself.
27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
31
Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation
between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56
30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29
32
‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques
and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the
ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural
voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the
quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming
equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history.
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008)
34
and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and
identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25
35
clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una
fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono
i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture,
al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce
l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 
‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a
finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places
where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are
numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one
starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that
give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature.
34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi
(Garzanti elefanti: 2008)
35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53
36
The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s
envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination.
37
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)

38
the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself:
‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured
history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or
restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that
the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole.
37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08
39
The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the
fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards
the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014)
40
eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41
naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere
in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility
The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an
expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and
cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of
spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the
Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage
throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that
could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were
adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As
Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods
were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan
and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to
41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011)
43
divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting.
The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in
the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can
also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that
in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often
projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean.
42 Ibid pp.443
43 Ibid pp.443
44
Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean,
interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and
customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto
have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural
interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in
Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45
voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a
personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may
intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region.
It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom
the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural
sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion.
In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a
great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46
in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical
catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is
unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era
where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47
paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole
and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time.
One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the
acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per
Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The
acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R
stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication.
48
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication
The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled
with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common
language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In
the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea:
49
‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and
morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component,
exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and
which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224
47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247)
50
speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca
Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146
51
lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made
when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the
Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the
lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined
territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess.
In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in
culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate:
‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir;
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50
The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by
French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that
gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s
main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf
50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143
53
Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua
franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates,
fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate
with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul,
from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early
decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto”
developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian,
51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
54
French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and
words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own
basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to
linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
55
language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language
as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo
mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in
maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in
spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle
sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53
‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin.
It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine,
sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic.
53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237
56
And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have
developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and
developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout
the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of
Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture.
57
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction.
Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80
58
been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is
undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the
region have taken place.
The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean
itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural
exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions
which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence
allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange.
Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the
‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and
amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the
region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region.
As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined
to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and
therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The
59
Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place.
Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes
itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction
between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the
importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean.
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo
‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio
simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57
56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese
(Mesogea: 2000) pp.7
60
‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a
symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’
The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich
would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has
fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries
built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of
authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse
about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary.
Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian
immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his
61
writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin
especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about
his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose
the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole.
Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the
region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel
agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found.
‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che
ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un
piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58
‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one
usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The
Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’
The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who
wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure,
and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and
happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the
Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He
pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean
58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea:
2000) pp.17
62
imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself.
The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used
for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem
externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or
artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since
the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on
interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves
that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63
perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was
fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a
constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary
other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more
organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and
so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the
opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own.
The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a
comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60
, she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined.
It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on
59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
64
land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely
lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea.
Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in
the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute.
The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because
it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the
Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen
through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story
that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of
letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in
Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is
identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a
61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010)
65
voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like
Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of
travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return.
Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he
manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being
built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding
stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a
greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice
violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a
deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In
L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62
, Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds
a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the
modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean
imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed
Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home
62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006)
66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have
maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the
harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be
positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a
positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way
Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their
battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the
Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the
imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such
as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the
recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses
on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His
imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on
repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities.
67
Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from
the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on
the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the
Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille
managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a
Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the
region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways
of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and
identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist,
develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a
Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region.
The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something
that is common, something that is part of a collective memory.
The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a
Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and
on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape
our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal
encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each
author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting
of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular
68
culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it
often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the
sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of
mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. 
Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience
various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the
Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that
managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts.
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture
The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of
popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions.
To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind
the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new
means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been
compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology.
One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as
a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering
the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most
relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the
internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance,
shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use.
The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of
conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam
Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the
traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
70
‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are
rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy
but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most
visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64
The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the
time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the
place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies
in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the
geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic
centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and
this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the
sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the
position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie.
When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media
m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed
Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71
unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The
documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision.
72
A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city
that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and
traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as
crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural
heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement
that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the
ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer.
Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the
Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time
which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying
Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In
the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of
65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014)
66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003)
73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds.
This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus.
What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various
images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver.
The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the
way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour
repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between
67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014)
75
Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French
movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the
country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study.
4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours.
Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to
mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The
harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour.
77
5 Conclusion
The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the
myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed
independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that
have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of
the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68
From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a
place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the
outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by
maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has
developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction
with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a
cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer.
In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre
of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’,
most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the
68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
78
Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its
inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance
with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and
literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and
architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person
approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a
symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which
assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the
‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view
the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that
managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one
hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region
because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes.
On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their
own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also
69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society.
5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean
One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his
The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being
cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different
7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
80
elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the
collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from
reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever
stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social
structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary.
Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are
71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81
accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond
these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself.
Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers.
The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary
comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars.
From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean
holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory.
Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
82
Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor
who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the
Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the
Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining
different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond
the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed
curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that
a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that
Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of
the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an
everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost
different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a
shared Mediterranean imaginary.
The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the
Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern
created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding
similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the
83
Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear
as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and
sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors
are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but
aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different
circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not
aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in
itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is
able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience.
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour
Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean
imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be
taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the
Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity.
Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex
84
identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable.
85
Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the
Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he
always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or
rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things.
72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000)
86
Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived
most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’
country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of
his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person
living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous
identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable.
The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and
Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is
evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 
87
concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as
explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity:
‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical,
coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious
c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and
contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past;
it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually
corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy
choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future,
though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national
borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus,
horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely
a legacy of the past.’ 73
In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may
be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean
history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and
everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now.
The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very
important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary,
73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8
88
being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher.
A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in
understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity
usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common
goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars
show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite
difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study
itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that
contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’.
All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the
sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to
write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region,
89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds
residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that
I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in
his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean
needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in
the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins
Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him
psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as
a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own
identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the
actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an
‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be
transported through time.
The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and
thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of
the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical
meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for
anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself.
90
The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help
of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in
which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal
encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the
region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity.
91
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97 

I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions.
II
Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12
1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20
2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38
3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo
Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69
4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?.
III
Abstract

The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between
civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot.
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1
Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea
(Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104
2
region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
4
of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55
6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the
Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region.
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. 
They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature
shaping the way in which history and culture developed.
The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in
literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the
Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo
Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by
Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two
different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different
periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and
somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore
recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the
authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that
the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on
8
the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the
region, a rich imaginary is created.
The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security
and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a
country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller.
Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience.
9
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power.
The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief,
need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes
of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in
common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a
5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010)
10
spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The
ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence
of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the
Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this
sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the
Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other
hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage.
6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II
(Fontana press: 19 8 6)
11
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the
Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today,
in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014)
www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February,
2014)
13
‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning.
The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it
purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. 
Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and
although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15
1.4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies,
contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.
16
2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients.
17
The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow
constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996)
12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike.
13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007)
19
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372
20
figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009)
21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean.
Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same
contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the
MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger
macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.

‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie
nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure
-penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero
all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17
‘Drunken songs and curses rise up
in the suburban tavern. Here, too,
I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is
drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18
16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
\V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372
22
Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’
with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
23
have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant
geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical
complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986)
20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011)
24
natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love,
between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
25
infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor:
26
‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si
annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il
superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita
come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22
‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we
find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of
limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio”
and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
27
number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
28
Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern
or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the
stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean,
that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea
routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large
and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey
is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
29
deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25
‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of
a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’
This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from
Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010)
30
place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself.
27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
31
Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation
between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56
30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29
32
‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques
and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the
ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural
voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the
quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming
equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history.
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008)
34
and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and
identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25
35
clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una
fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono
i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture,
al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce
l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 
‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a
finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places
where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are
numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one
starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that
give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature.
34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi
(Garzanti elefanti: 2008)
35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53
36
The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s
envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination.
37
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)

38
the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself:
‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured
history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or
restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that
the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole.
37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08
39
The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the
fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards
the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014)
40
eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41
naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere
in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility
The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an
expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and
cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of
spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the
Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage
throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that
could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were
adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As
Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods
were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan
and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to
41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011)
43
divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting.
The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in
the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can
also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that
in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often
projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean.
42 Ibid pp.443
43 Ibid pp.443
44
Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean,
interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and
customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto
have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural
interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in
Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45
voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a
personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may
intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region.
It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom
the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural
sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion.
In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a
great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46
in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical
catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is
unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era
where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47
paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole
and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time.
One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the
acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per
Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The
acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R
stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication.
48
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication
The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled
with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common
language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In
the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea:
49
‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and
morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component,
exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and
which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224
47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247)
50
speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca
Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146
51
lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made
when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the
Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the
lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined
territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess.
In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in
culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate:
‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir;
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50
The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by
French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that
gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s
main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf
50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143
53
Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua
franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates,
fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate
with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul,
from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early
decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto”
developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian,
51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
54
French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and
words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own
basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to
linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
55
language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language
as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo
mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in
maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in
spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle
sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53
‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin.
It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine,
sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic.
53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237
56
And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have
developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and
developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout
the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of
Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture.
57
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction.
Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80
58
been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is
undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the
region have taken place.
The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean
itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural
exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions
which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence
allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange.
Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the
‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and
amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the
region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region.
As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined
to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and
therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The
59
Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place.
Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes
itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction
between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the
importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean.
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo
‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio
simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57
56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese
(Mesogea: 2000) pp.7
60
‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a
symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’
The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich
would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has
fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries
built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of
authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse
about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary.
Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian
immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his
61
writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin
especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about
his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose
the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole.
Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the
region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel
agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found.
‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che
ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un
piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58
‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one
usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The
Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’
The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who
wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure,
and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and
happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the
Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He
pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean
58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea:
2000) pp.17
62
imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself.
The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used
for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem
externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or
artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since
the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on
interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves
that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63
perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was
fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a
constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary
other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more
organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and
so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the
opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own.
The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a
comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60
, she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined.
It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on
59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
64
land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely
lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea.
Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in
the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute.
The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because
it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the
Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen
through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story
that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of
letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in
Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is
identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a
61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010)
65
voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like
Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of
travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return.
Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he
manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being
built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding
stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a
greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice
violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a
deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In
L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62
, Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds
a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the
modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean
imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed
Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home
62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006)
66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have
maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the
harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be
positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a
positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way
Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their
battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the
Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the
imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such
as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the
recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses
on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His
imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on
repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities.
67
Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from
the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on
the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the
Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille
managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a
Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the
region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways
of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and
identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist,
develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a
Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region.
The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something
that is common, something that is part of a collective memory.
The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a
Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and
on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape
our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal
encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each
author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting
of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular
68
culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it
often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the
sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of
mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. 
Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience
various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the
Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that
managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts.
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture
The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of
popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions.
To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind
the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new
means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been
compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology.
One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as
a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering
the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most
relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the
internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance,
shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use.
The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of
conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam
Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the
traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
70
‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are
rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy
but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most
visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64
The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the
time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the
place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies
in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the
geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic
centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and
this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the
sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the
position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie.
When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media
m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed
Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71
unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The
documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision.
72
A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city
that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and
traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as
crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural
heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement
that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the
ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer.
Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the
Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time
which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying
Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In
the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of
65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014)
66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003)
73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds.
This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus.
What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various
images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver.
The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the
way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour
repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between
67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014)
75
Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French
movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the
country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study.
4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours.
Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to
mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The
harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour.
77
5 Conclusion
The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the
myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed
independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that
have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of
the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68
From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a
place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the
outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by
maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has
developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction
with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a
cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer.
In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre
of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’,
most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the
68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
78
Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its
inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance
with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and
literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and
architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person
approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a
symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which
assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the
‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view
the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that
managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one
hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region
because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes.
On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their
own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also
69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society.
5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean
One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his
The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being
cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different
7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
80
elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the
collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from
reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever
stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social
structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary.
Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are
71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81
accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond
these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself.
Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers.
The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary
comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars.
From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean
holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory.
Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
82
Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor
who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the
Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the
Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining
different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond
the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed
curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that
a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that
Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of
the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an
everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost
different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a
shared Mediterranean imaginary.
The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the
Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern
created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding
similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the
83
Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear
as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and
sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors
are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but
aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different
circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not
aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in
itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is
able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience.
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour
Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean
imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be
taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the
Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity.
Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex
84
identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable.
85
Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the
Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he
always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or
rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things.
72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000)
86
Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived
most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’
country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of
his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person
living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous
identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable.
The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and
Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is
evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 
87
concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as
explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity:
‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical,
coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious
c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and
contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past;
it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually
corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy
choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future,
though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national
borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus,
horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely
a legacy of the past.’ 73
In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may
be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean
history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and
everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now.
The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very
important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary,
73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8
88
being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher.
A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in
understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity
usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common
goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars
show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite
difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study
itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that
contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’.
All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the
sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to
write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region,
89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds
residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that
I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in
his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean
needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in
the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins
Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him
psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as
a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own
identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the
actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an
‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be
transported through time.
The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and
thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of
the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical
meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for
anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself.
90
The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help
of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in
which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal
encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the
region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity.
91
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97 

Oltre il silenzio di Antonio Di Grado

 

18318078_1725668377730603_1246566395_o

Oltre il silenzio

Non è facile parlare di Consolo. Perché a lui giustamente ripugnava il bla-bla letterario, e anzi si faceva sempre più netto, di libro in libro, il suo rifiuto della letteratura e del romanzo tradizionali, orientati a uno scioglimento salvifico e a una fittizia ricomposizione dei conflitti. E altrettanto fastidio esprimeva per certa critica parassitaria e devitalizzata, per le «prose piane» e le «storie tonde» dei «professori», ironicamente evocate fin dalle prime pagine dello Spasimo di Palermo, inutili e dannose almeno quanto gli scrittori-intrattenitori che quella critica blandisce e che di quella critica hanno bisogno per «ingrassare» la loro «musa acquietante», fatta di «trame» che sono «panie catturanti», cioè colpevoli inganni, e di parole che appartengono a «gerghi scaduti o lingue invase, smemorate».

Nell’impervia sfida di Consolo contro quei linguaggi culmina un’altra sfida, una scommessa purtroppo perduta, quella della grande tradizione letteraria siciliana, che da Verga e De Roberto a Pirandello, da Brancati e Vittorini a Sciascia si sforzò d’innalzare un argine di stile e di moralità, d’intelli­genza critica, contro l’omologazio­ne, contro la perdita delle radici e del senso, e a preservare una diversità che, se non è più storica e antropologica, se non è più nei costumi e nella lingua d’una terra frattanto omologata e imbarbarita, resti tale almeno sul piano conoscitivo, intellettuale, della lettura critica del reale, della demistificazione della storia redatta dai vincitori e della lingua mendace del potere.

La scomparsa dello scrittore m’ha portato indietro nel tempo, fino all’ormai lontano 1989, quando proposi al Teatro Stabile di Catania di commissionare ai tre grandi scrittori siciliani allora viventi – Leonardo Sciascia, Gesualdo Bufalino e Vincenzo Consolo – tre atti unici da riunire in un Trittico, che fu messo in scena nel novembre di quell’anno. Sciascia ormai stava male, molto male. Accolse l’invito ma mi pregò di provvedere io alla riduzione drammaturgica d’un suo racconto, Arrivano i nostri, un delizioso divertissement sul trasformismo d’un pugno di notabili siciliani, debitamente reazionari, ma raggiunti nel loro circolo dalla falsa notizia dell’invasione dell’Italia da parte dell’Armata Rossa. Una farsa amara, che concludeva il Trittico – dopo la mesta elegia di Bufalino e l’altisonante tragedia di Consolo – con un sorriso: lo stesso che strappai a Sciascia raccontandogli, all’indomani della prima, del successo e delle risate riscossi dal suo (e mio) Quando non arrivarono i nostri. L’ultimo sorriso, forse: si spense pochi giorni dopo, il 20 novembre. All’alba di quel giorno, fu proprio Consolo a darmi la notizia, per telefono, con voce rotta.

Pure Bufalino si prestò al cimento teatrale, con la sua sovrana sprezzatura da gentiluomo garbato e blasé. Trascrisse lui stesso in forma teatrale un suo racconto, La panchina. In mezzo, tra l’atto unico di Bufalino e quello di Sciascia e mio, un testo nuovo, scritto per l’occasione da Consolo: Catarsi, un testo di alta e impervia poesia, memore addirittura dei tragici greci, di Hölderlin e di Pasolini; un testo che definirei di non ritorno, perciò cruciale nella sua produzione, ché nell’altezza stessa del suo linguaggio certificava l’impossibilità del linguaggio stesso di redimere il mondo dalla comunicazione omologata e asservita al Potere. E perciò drammaticamente prefigurava le successive difficoltà creative di Consolo, dovute non già a impotenza o inaridimento ma a una lacerante consapevolezza della impossibilità della parola di riscattarci dall’insensatezza e dalla menzogna.

Consolo fu il più entusiasta dei tre, il più vicino e partecipe. Non so quanto il pubblico, che si commosse con Bufalino e si divertì con Sciascia, riuscì a capirlo. Ma questa è un’altra storia. Ora conta tornare a quel testo estremo e programmatico, perché rappresentò una cesura nella produzione dello scrittore così com’era un testo-fron­tiera tra il teatro e il canto, tra la parola e il silenzio, tra la resistenza e la resa, un testo la cui ardua poesia era tutt’uno con la rinunzia di Empedocle al compromesso col potere e con la sua lingua falsa e strumentale, e perciò era tutt’uno col silenzio dell’auto­an­­nul­la­­mento, della morte.

Il silenzio: forse i grandi scrittori siciliani, coi loro sconsolati ritorni e coi loro travagli espressivi talora paralizzanti (ultimo, per l’appunto, Consolo) provengono dal travaglio della parola poetica di Verga e dal suo struggente spegnersi nel silenzio e nell’amarezza. Anche il silenzio può essere letto come un testo; e tanto più le forme di comunicazione che lo evocano ma senza inabissarvisi, senza rinunziare cioè a quell’estrema mossa della speranza che è la parola che si pone e resta sospesa sulla soglia, che nel momento di spegnersi pronuncia l’indicibile. E la rinunzia al romanzo, quella di Consolo più che quella apparentemente analoga del protagonista del suo ultimo romanzo, che aveva davvero e in toto rinunziato alla scrittura, può dunque essere annoverata e letta all’interno di un’alta tradizione di prosa non romanzesca, che evita cioè la falsa conciliazione del romanzo sette-ottocen­tesco, eurocentrico, realistico e borghese senza rinunziare a interpretare e giudicare, anzi incrementando per ciò stesso il suo potenziale evocativo e analitico, critico.

Dopo il cimento teatrale di Catarsi e le successive prove saggistiche e narrative, e prima della drammatica impasse degli ultimi anni, questa poetica trovò definitiva e radicale conferma proprio nello Spasimo di Palermo, che chiudeva, col Sorriso e Nottetempo, il trittico nel quale la storia o meglio l’antistoria siciliana delle sconfitte della ragione e della perpetuazione del dominio viene dissezionata e squadernata nelle forme sempre più ellittiche e problematiche, e coscienziali, cioè votate allo scavo interiore, all’interrogazione febbrile, alla vertigine espressiva, di una narrazione polifonica e polisemica, magmatica e metamorfica, insieme ebbra e raziocinante, tramata da brusche cesure e fluidi trapassi.

A me pare che l’ambizione di Consolo sia stata quella di far confluire le due vie maestre, parallele e tuttavia talvolta intersecate, della grande narrativa isolana: quella lirico-evocativa, monodica, e mitizzante, che dalla casa del nespolo portava fino a Vittorini e poi a D’Arrigo, e che lui stesso palesemente proseguiva, e quella, apparentemente a lui più estranea, di tipo analitico e raziocinante: la linea, cioè, De Roberto-Borgese-Brancati-Sciascia, della quale egli adottava la vocazione sperimentale alla contaminazione e al saggismo, accentuandone la vocazione al plurilinguismo. E aspirava a combinarle, quelle due vie, in quel­­­l’u­­nicum riassuntivo, ma originale e diverso, che è la sua prosa poetico-critica, insieme analitica ed evocativa, consacrata alle due muse solo apparentemente antitetiche della nostalgia e dell’indi­gnazione, della me­mo­­ria e del furore civile, delle oltranze espressive e concettuali.

Antonio Di Grado

nella foto:  Antonio Di Grado, Vincenzo Consolo e Mariella Lo Giudice

Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio e L’ipotesto di libertà.

GUIDO BALDI

Università di Torino

II saggio si propone di esaminare i punti di contatto tra Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio e la novella Libertà (evidentemente presa da Consolo come punto di riferimento), e al tempo stesso le divergenze nell’impostazione del racconto, che risalgono ai diversi orientamenti ideologici dei due scrittori nei confronti della materia, una rivolta contadina. Se in Verga si registra un atteggiamento fermamente negativo verso la sommossa e le sue atrocità, temperato solo dalla pietà per i contadini diseredati, in Consolo invece si nota la volontà di comprenderne le ragioni. Non solo, se in Libertà la rappresentazione appare scarsamente problematica, a causa dell’atteggiamento dell’Autore che predetermina rigidamente le reazioni del lettore in un unica direzione, Consolo conferisce problematicità al racconto grazie all’uso dei punti di vista e delle voci, giocati abilmente a contrasto.

  1. GLI ANTECEDENTI DELLA SOMMOSSA

Alla base del romanzo di Vincenzo Consolo, Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio (1976), si colloca una rivolta contadina, quella scoppiata il 17 maggio 1860 in un piccolo paese sui monti Nebrodi, Alcara Li Fusi, provocata come in Libertà,(1) dalle speranze e dalle illusioni nate all’arrivo dei garibaldini in Sicilia. Ma rispetto a Libertà si registra una differenza sorprendente: la sommossa non viene rappresentata. Il romanzo ruota intorno a un vuoto, a una clamorosa ellissi narrativa, che non può non sconcertare il lettore, deludendo le sue attese, specie se si accosta al testo avendo nella memoria quello famoso di Verga. Eppure tutto il congegno narrativo del romanzo, nella sua prima parte, prima di arrivare al momento decisivo, fa supporre che la rappresentazione della rivolta debba essere il culmine del racconto, il suo punto di convergenza centrale, la sua Spannung. Al capitolo terzo, il folle eremita che vive in una grotta sulla montagna incontra nello spiazzo della forgia a Santa Marecùma un gruppo di fabbri e pastori, “omazzi rinomati per potenza di polso e selvaggiume», (2)dai nomi “grottescamente eloquenti di briganti più che di uomini, simili agli antichi epiteti che si davano ai diavoli”

(1) I rimandi alla novella verghiana nel romanzo sono numerosi, pertanto essa, per usare la terminologia genettiana, ne viene a costituire l’ipotesto (GERARD GENETTA. Palinsesti La Letteratura al secondo grado, trad. it.Torino, Einaudi, 1997).

(2) Tutte le citazioni sono tratte dalla seconda edizione del romanzo, Milano, Mondadori, 1997, che reca un’importante Nota dell’autore, vent’anni dopo.

(come nota finemente Giovanni Tesio nel suo commento), (1) «Caco Scippateste Car-cagnintra Casta Mita Inferno Mistêrio e Milinciana», intenti a oliare fucili arrugginiti, a fondere piombo, a riempir cartucce, a ritagliare proiettili, a molare falci, accette, forconi, zappe, coltelli, forbicioni. La scena è interamente colta attraverso il punto di vista dell’eremita, che, se a tutta prima crede di essere capitato all’inferno, pur nella sua esaltazione ha l’intuito pronto e capisce che vi è qualcosa di strano e sospetto in quell’armeggiare. Le stesse risposte dei presenti all’ eremita sono ammiccanti e allusive: alla sua domanda se intendono scannare maiali, rispondono: «- Porci di tutti i tempi, frate Nunzio – Ce n’è tanti – Tanti – Stigliole salsicce soppressata coste gelatina lardo, ah, l’abbondanza di quest’anno”; poi all’altra domanda se l’indomani pensano di fare festa a San Nicola, affermano: «Saltiamo questa volta, frate Nunzio. Non vedete quanto travaglio? […) Faremo festa per il giovedì che viene – Festa – Festazza […J – Scendete dall’eremo, frate Nunzio, e vedrete -». Il clima infernale che avvolge la scena potrebbe far supporre, nell’Autore, l’intento di usare immagini fortemente connotate e subliminalmente suggestive per mettere in risalto il carattere demoniaco della rivolta e così condizionare la reazione emotiva e il giudizio del lettore in una precisa direzione (come avviene in Libertà con la «strega, coi vecchi capelli irti sul capo, armata soltanto delle unghie», che sta innanzi ai rivoltosi ubriachi di sangue); in realtà non si ha nulla del genere: al contrario, usare il punto di vista di un folle delirante, al quale va tutta la responsabilità dell’immagine, ottiene un effetto straniante, per cui l’adunanza dei futuri rivoltosi che preparano le loro armi assume un carattere di fervore gioioso, e la deformazione espressionistica della rappresentazione fa sentire la forza latente e la rabbia repressa che cova in quei diseredati in vista della prossima rivolta. Cosi le immagini gastronomiche da loro usate non hanno il valore delle allusioni verghiane alla ferocia cannibalica della folla affamata, anch’esse cariche di un pesante giudizio sull’ atrocità delle stragi dissimulato nella trama segreta del racconto, ma possiedono qualcosa di pantagruelicamente allegro. Infine le allusioni alla rivolta come festa non hanno nulla a che vedere con il «carnevale furibondo di luglio» di Libertà, ma fanno pensare a uno scatenamento liberatorio di quella forza e di quella rabbia.

Arrivato sulla piazza del paese, l’eremita vede che la caverna piena di gente rovescia per la porta aperta uno sfavillio di luce, «come antro di fornace» (un rimando interno alla forgia di prima), insieme a voci e urla. Da un gruppo che siede sul sedile di pietra, composto dal lampionaio, dall’usciere comunale, dall’inserviente del Casino dei galantuomini e dal sagrestano, il frate apprende il motivo di quella baldoria:

– Un tizio chiamato Garibardo

– Chi e ‘sto cristiano?

– Scanna monache e brucia conventi, rapina chiese, preda i galantuomini e protegge       avanzi di galera

– Questi vanno dicendo che gli da giustizia e terre…

Segno rapido di croce, mani giunte, capo chino e masticare un sordo paternostro

A differenza di Verga, che avvia la narrazione della sommossa in medias res, saltando tutti gli antefatti e partendo con il racconto dei primi atti compiuti dai rivoltosi, il romanzo di Consolo indugia sugli antefatti, sul come il diffondersi delle notizie sullo sbarco

di Garibaldi ecciti gli animi dei diseredati e persino, come si è visto, sulla preparazione delle armi per i futuri eccidi. L’impostazione sembra voler insinuare nel lettore l’attesa di ciò che dovrà accadere, la convinzione che la rivolta sarà allo stesso modo diffusamente rappresentata, quasi a rendere poi più sconcertante la delusione delle aspettative. Nel passo citato le notizie dell’arrivo dei garibaldini e delle reazioni da essi provocate sono date attraverso il punto di vista degli uomini d’ordine, che stanno dalla parte dei signori e guardano con esecrazione e paura gli avvenimenti. In Libertà il punto di vista conservatore sul processo risorgimentale è riportato solo mediante un rapido accenno, l’uso spregiativo del verbo «sciorinarono» riferito al tricolore, qui invece quel modo malevolo di interpretare l’impresa dei Mille è proposto con ampiezza, evidentemente per mettere in piena luce una gretta chiusura dinanzi a ogni avvisaglia di cambiamento sociale che dall’alto si irradia verso il basso, contagiando anche i satelliti della classe padronale, come questi modesti paesani che stanno a chiacchierare in piazza.

Quello che nella novella verghiana era un rapido moto di disappunto dell’Autore dinanzi alla sordità dei «galantuomini» ai valori patriottici, qui si fa aperta polemica, ma più contro la chiusura sociale dei conservatori che quella politica. È chiaro da che parte sta lo scrittore.

Ancora al capitolo quinto si ha un’ampia narrazione di un momento preparatorio della sommossa, il raduno dei rivoltosi sempre nella conca di Santa Marecúma, la sera precedente il giorno fissato. Giungono tre uomini a cavallo, due «civili» e un capo dei braccianti, che sono i capi della rivolta e tengono i loro discorsi alla folla. Grazie ad essi si delineano non solo le motivazioni dell’insurrezione, ma anche le correnti per cosi dire ‘ideologiche’ che l’attraversano. Mentre in Libertà non emergono figure di capi e i contadini sono presentati come una massa spinta da impulsi ciechi e del tutto spontanei, una collettività indifferenziata in cui vi è una perfetta unità di intenti nella pura esplosione di rabbia selvaggia e di irrazionale furia distruttiva (tanto che viene escluso dal racconto il dato storico dell’avvocato Lombardo, l’ideologo e l’organizzatore del moto), qui Consolo ha cura di presentare le varie tendenze che, almeno nei capi, si profilano tra la collettività rurale. Don Ignazio Cozzo, borghese e sommariamente “alletterato”, cioè almeno capace di leggere e scrivere, rappresenta la tendenza a conciliare le spinte più radicali e le posizioni più moderate: il fine ultimo è una conciliazione delle istanze di giustizia sociale, rivolte contro l’oppressione della classe dei proprietari, con il riconoscimento delle autorità istituzionali, monarchia e Chiesa. Con tutto questo, l’oratore sa toccare le corde più sensibili dell’uditorio, facendo leva sui suoi impulsi più violenti, e invita a non farsi fermare da «pietà o codardia», perché grande è la «rabbia«, dopo anni di «sopportazione”, ordinando a ciascuno, al segnale stabilito, «Viva l’Italia!«, di scagliarsi «sopra il civile che si troverà davanti«. Poi, sempre come spia del relativo moderatismo di questa tendenza, l’oratore da appuntamento a tutti, a mezzanotte, per un solenne giuramento sopra il Vangelo, davanti a un ministro di Dio, il parroco del Rosario.

A contrastare questa linea insorge l’altro oratore, non un borghese ma il capo dei braccianti, Turi Malandro, che rappresenta le tendenze più estremistiche del movimento. Innanzitutto rifiuta il grido di «Viva l’Italia!« come segnale della sommossa, proponendo invece «Giustizial»: all’impostazione istituzionale, patriottica, contrappone quella sociale, eversiva dei rapporti di proprietà, perché giustizia in quel contesto significa sostanzialmente redistribuzione della terra. Una linea dura e spietata prospetta anche per l’azione: avverte che sarà facile lo «scanna scanna pressati dalla rabbia», il difficile verrà dopo, quando «il sangue, le grida, le lacrime, misericordia, promesse e implorazioni potranno invigliacchire i fegati più grossi. Non bisogna dunque cedere alla pietà: «Se uno, uno solo si lascia brancare da pena o da paura, tutta la rivoluzione la manda a farsi fottere». Se in Libertà la ferocia senza pietà dei rivoltosi era solo effetto di rabbia spontanea e di odio accumulato contro gli oppressori, qui la violenza non appare cieca, ma preordinata, teorizzata, ideologizzata, Non si ha una massa irrazionale, ma una forza organizzata, indirizzata verso obiettivi precisi, consapevole dei propri strumenti di lotta. In entrambi i casi gli atteggiamenti ideologici degli Autori verso la massa popolare, le posizioni conservatrici di Verga e quelle di sinistra di Consolo, non condizionano solo le tecniche narrative della sua rappresentazione, ma determinano la fisionomia stessa dell’oggetto rappresentato.

Il borghese don Ignazio sa muoversi con destrezza in questo dibattito con il suo contraddittore più estremista: accetta la parola d’ordine «Giustizia!», declassandola però a puro segnale convenzionale, al pari dell’altra, «Viva l’Italia!», Si allinea sulle posizioni anticlericali del capo bracciante, proclamando: «Siamo contro il Borbone e i servi suoi, ma anche contro la chiesa che protegge le angherie e i tiranni», ma distingue tra i preti «amici e soci degli usurpatorio e preti liberali come il parroco del Rosario. Insinua poi ragioni di opportunità, in quanto il prete è parente di un capitano che segue Garibaldi, e i rivoltosi non possono fare a meno della protezione dei garibaldini, che sono in grado di legittimare il loro operato agli occhi del mondo.

Ultimo preannuncio della sommossa è alla fine del capitolo l’incontro del gruppo di braccianti e pastori nel paese con un «civile», il professor Ignazio, figlio del notaio don Bartolo, il più odiato dei notabili, che alloro passaggio getta loro provocatoriamente in

Faccia i suoi scherni («Ah, che puzzo di merda si sente questa sera.»), ai quali fa eco, ripetendo le stesse parole, il figlio quindicenne. Tutti impugnano i falcetti, le zappe e le cesoie, pronti alla reazione violenta, ma uno di essi, più padrone di sé, riesce a conte nerne l’impeto, invitandoli a portare pazienza sino all’indomani. E il gruppo prosegue con i denti serrati, soffiando forte dal naso «per furia compressa e bile che riversa», È l’ultima immagine della rabbia che sta per esplodere.

2. L’ELLISSI NARRATIVA

A questo punto, dopo così ampi indugi preparatori, il lettore si sente legittimato ad aspettarsi subito dopo il racconto dettagliato della sommossa, Invece non trova nulla del genere: il capitolo successivo è costituito da una lunga lettera del barone di Mandralisca, già protagonista del primo, secondo e quarto capitolo, che per le sue ricerche di naturalista si è trovato sul luogo degli eventi e mesi dopo, a ottobre, scrive all’amico Giovanni Interdonato, procuratore dell’Alta Corte di Messina che dovrà giudicare gli insorti scampati alla fucilazione sommaria, come preambolo a una memoria che intende compilare sui fatti di Alcara. E evidente allora che il principale problema interpretativo proposto dal Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio è capire le ragioni di questa clamoroSa ellissi narrativa e la sua funzione strutturale nell’economia dell’opera.

La lettera del barone è il centro ideale del romanzo, e in essa si possono rinvenire le ragioni dell’ellissi, del fatto che lo scrittore rinunci sorprendentemente alla rappresentazione della rivolta popolare, II Mandralisca vorrebbe narrare i fatti come li avrebbe narrati uno di quei rivoltosi, e non uno come don Ignazio Cozzo, «che già apparteneva alla classe de’ civili», ma uno «zappatore analfabeta». In questo proposito dell’aristocratico intellettuale si può intravedere un’allusione alla tecnica abituale delle narrazioni verghiane  incentrate sulle «basse sfere», che consiste proprio nell’adottare una voce narrante al livello stesso del personaggi popolari (tecnica peraltro solo parzialmente applicata in un testo come Libertà, par dedicato a una sommossa contadina, poiché per buona parte il narratone terno al piano del narrato è portavoce dei «galantuomini»).

Ma il barone, che qui diviene il narratore in prima persona (con un passaggio al racconto omodiegetico, mentre i capitoli precedenti erano affidati a un narratore eterodiegetico), scarta decisamente questa possibilità: «Per quanto l’intenzione e il cuore siano disposti, troppi vizi ci nutriamo dentro, storture, magagne, per nascita, cultura e per il censo, Ed è impostura mai sempre la scrittura di noi cosiddetti illuminati, maggiore forse di quella degli ottusi e oscurati da’ privilegi loro e passion di casta». Qui chiaramente il barone è alter ego e portavoce dell’Autore stesso: se ne può dedurre facilmente che Consolo rinuncia a narrare la sommossa perché è convinto che una simile operazione, condotta da lui, intellettuale borghese, viziato nella sua visione dalla sua posizione di classe, dalle «storture» che le sono connaturate, sarebbe un «impostura», non sarebbe in grado di riprodurre le ragioni che hanno determinato l’evento, anzi ne tradirebbe inevitabilmente il senso, risolvendosi in una mistificazione. Il barone rintuzza poi l’obiezione che ci sono le istruttorie, le dichiarazioni agli atti, le testimonianze: «Chi verga quelle scritte, chi piega quelle voci e le raggela dentro i codici, le leggi della lingua? Uno scriba, un trascrittore, un cancelliere»; e anche se esistesse uno strumento meccanico capace di registrare quelle voci, come il dagherrotipo fissa le immagini, «siffatta operazione sarebbe ancora ingiusta: poi che noi non possediamo la chiave, il cifrario atto a interpretare que’ discorsi», e non solo sul piano linguistico: «Oltre la lingua, teniamo noi la chiave, il cifrario dell’essere e del sentire e risentire di tutta questa gente?»

Il discorso del barone passa poi a toccare un altro punto di centrale rilevanza, strettamente legato al precedente: l’impossibilità per i privilegiati, anche per quelli «illuminati», di condividere i valori fondamentali, soprattutto quelli politici e culturali, con le classi subalterne. Essi ritengono come unico possibile il loro codice, il loro modo di essere e di parlare che hanno «eletto a imperio a tutti quanti «Il codice del dritto di proprietà e di possesso, il codice politico dell’acclamata libertà e unità d’Italia, il codice dell’eroismo come quello del condottiero Garibaldi e di tutti i suoi seguaci, il codice della poesia e della scienza, il codice della giustizia e quello d’un’utopia sublime e lontanissima…». Per questo la classe dominante parla di rivoluzione, libertà, eguaglianza, democrazia, e riempie di quelle parole libri, giornali, costituzioni, leggi, perché quei valori li ha già conquistati, li possiede. Ma le classi subalterne sono estranee a quei valori, non possono parteciparli: «E gli altri, che mai hanno raggiunto i dritti più sacri e elementari, la terra e il pane, la salute e l’amore, la pace, la gioia e l’istruzione, questi dico, e sono la più parte, perché devono intender quelle parole a modo nostro?». Quei valori non possono essere semplicemente calati dall’alto: le classi subalterne devono da sole conquistarseli, e allora «li chiameranno con parole nuove, vere per loro, e giocotorza anche per noi, vere perché i nomi saranno intieramente riempiti dalle cose»; e allora «la storia loro, la storia, la scriveran da sé, non io, non voi, Interdonato, o uno scriba assoldato. tutti per forza di nascita, per rango o disposizione pronti a vergar su le carte fregi. svolazzi, aeree spirali, labirinti…* Quindi, per il barone, il riscatto dei subalterni varrà a riscattare gli stessi privilegiati, ridando verginità e sostanza autentica a valori che rischiano di ridursi, nelle loro mani, a meri flatus  vocis inconsistenti o a vacue ornamentazioni retoriche. Se gli intellettuali non possono non mistificare la storia degli oppressi con la loro scrittura, la scrittura autentica di tale storia non potrà essere che degli oppressi stessi, quando avranno conquistato gli strumenti concettuali attraverso l’istruzione e l’emancipazione dalla loro subalternità.

Risulta evidente, da tutte queste riflessioni del barone di Mandralisca, e dietro di lui dello scrittore, la distanza ideologica che, sul tema comune della rappresentazione di una rivolta contadina, separa il romanzo di Consolo da Libertà. Verga, dal suo punto di vista di conservatore deluso e pessimista, registra con la sua gelida oggettività, che tradisce una desolata amarezza, l’estraneità dei contadini ai valori risorgimentali, il loro ridurre l’ideale di libertà alla semplice redistribuzione della proprietà della terra. Consolo invece, da una prospettiva storica che, grazie alla conoscenza dell’ampio dibattito intervenuto nel frattempo, ha ben chiari i limiti del Risorgimento, specie nei suoi riflessi sul Mezzogiorno, e soprattutto considerando la rivolta contadina da tutt’altra angolatura, quella dell’intellettuale di sinistra, arriva a comprendere le motivazioni profonde di quella estraneità e a giustificarla storicamente e socialmente. Non solo, ma in chiave di materialismo storico attribuisce agli aspetti materiali, cioè proprio alla terra, un peso determinante rispetto agli ideali astratti. Il barone nel 1856 aveva partecipato ai moti patriottici di Cefalù, ed ora rievoca le figure degli eroi e dei martiri che allora avevano dato la vita per la causa: «Io mi dicea allora, prima de’ fatti orrendi e sanguinosi ch’appena sotto comincerò a narrare, quei d’Alcara intendo, finito che ho avuto questo preambolo, io mi dicea: è tutto giusto, è santo. Giusta la morte di Spinuzza, Bentivegna, Pisacane… Eroi, martiri d’un ideale, d’una fede nobile e ardente». Però ora, sotto l’impressione sconvolgente della sommossa di Alcara, è assalito da dubbi: «Oggi mi dico: cos’è questa fede, quest’ideale? Un’astrattezza, una distrazione, una vaghezza, un fiore incorporale, un ornamento, un ricciolo di vento.. Una lumaca.” La lumaca, l’oggetto dei suoi studi eruditi e futili, è assunta dal barone come immagine del vuoto sterile di una cultura di classe c, nella sua forma a spirale(1) che si chiude su se stessa, «di tutti i punti morti, i vizi, l’ossessioni, le manie, le coartazioni, i destini, le putrefazioni, le tombe, le prigioni… Delle negazioni insomma d’ogni vita, fuga, libertà e fantasia, d’ogni creazion perenne, senza fine». Per cui alla lumaca contrappone ciò che è solido e concreto, la terra: «Perché, a guardar sotto, sotto la lumaca intendo, c’è la terra, vera, materiale, eterna: e questo riporta il suo pensiero alla rivolta dei contadini: «Ah la terra! È ben per essa che insorsero quei d’Alcàra, come pure d’altri paesi, Biancavilla, Bronte, giammai per lumache», cioè per ideali astratti e retorici.

Inoltre, mentre il pessimismo induce Verga a essere profondamente scettico su una diversa organizzazione della società, e quindi a convincersi che un’eventuale redistribuzione della terra porterà comunque allo scatenarsi della lotta per la vita e a nuovi sopraffattori, scaturiti dalla massa popolare stessa, che si sostituiranno agli antichi, Consolo per bocca del suo aristocratico illuminato prospetta come una conquista determinante l’accesso dei contadini alla terra, nella prospettiva di una distruzione della proprietà privata, «la più grossa, mostruosa, divoratrice lumaca che sempre s’è aggirata strisciando per il mondo», distruzione che il barone vagheggia rifacendosi alle idee di Mario Pagano e di Pisacane, citato testualmente: «Il frutto del proprio lavoro garantito; tutt’altra proprietà non solo abolita, ma dalle leggi fulminata come il furto, dovrà essere la chiave del nuovo edifizio sociale. È ormai tempo di porre ad esecuzione la solenne sentenza che la Natura ha pronunciato per bocca di Mario Pagano: la distruzione di chi usurpa». Se Libertà ha alla base la negazione di ogni possibilità di progresso, dalle

parole del barone risalta una ferma fiducia nel progresso, in senso sociale, come riscatto delle masse oppresse ad opera delle masse stesse, capaci di distruggere il sistema iniquo della proprietà privata avviando a una totale rigenerazione del mondo: «Per distruggere questa i contadini d’Alcàra si son mossi, e per una causa vera, concreta, corporale: la terra: punto profondo, onfalo, tomba e rigenerazione, morte e vita, inverno e primavera, Ade e Demetra e Kore, che vien portando i doni in braccio, le spighe in fascio, il dolce melograno…. E, in questo proiettarsi in un futuro ritenuto possibile, la cui immagine lo esalta, la sua prosa diviene lirica, enfatica, infarcita di rimandi classici e mitologici, tradendo la sua natura di letterato: la scelta stilistica dello scrittore, che mima lo stile del personaggio stesso, vale a denunciare, mediante un processo di distanziamento e di straniamento, quanto di cultura aristocratica ed elitaria permanga nel nobile, nonostante la sua apertura ideologica, quindi a sottrarlo a ogni rigidezza esemplare e apologetica, a presentarlo in una luce critica (ma su questo dovremo ritornare).

Per la presa di coscienza dell’impossibilità di narrare i fatti di Alcara, «se non si vuol tradire, creare l’impostura», al barone «è caduta la penna dalla mano»: rinuncia pertanto all’idea di stendere quella memoria sullo svolgimento della sommossa che intendeva sottoporre all’amico Interdonato, procuratore dell’Alta Corte. Si limita a invitarlo ad agire «non più per l’Ideale, si bene per una causa vera, concreta», «decidere della vita di uomini ch’ agiron si con violenza, chi può negarlo?, ma spinti da più gravi violenze daltri, secolari, martiri soprusi angherie inganni. ». Ed in effetti il procuratore, rispondendo alla sollecitazione dell’amico, manda liberi i rivoltosi per amnistia, con un’ardita interpretazione di una legge del governo dittatoriale che assolveva da delitti commessi contro il regno borbonico. Evidentemente è significativa questa soluzione adottata da Consolo, se paragonata a quella di Libertà: Verga insiste sul processo in cui i rivoltosi, giudicati da giudici ostili per pregiudizio di classe, subiscono pesanti condanne, nel romanzo di Consolo invece essi (a parte quelli fucilati subito da una commissione speciale, come quelli fatti giustiziare da Bixio nella novella) non subiscono pene. In entrambi i casi viene rispettata la realtà storica: ma è importante che Consolo abbia scelto un fatto conclusosi con una soluzione positiva, grazie all’apertura illuminata di chi rappresenta la giustizia, mentre Verga abbia optato per un fatto risoltosi negativamente. Lo scrittore di sinistra punta cioè su un episodio che consente un’apertura verso il futuro la speranza in un ordine diverso in cui la giustizia non sia solo vendetta di classe, mentre Verga sceglie un episodio storico che conferma il suo pessimismo negatore di ogni prospettiva verso il futuro (e che lascia solo un margine alla pietà per le vittime di una giustizia ingiusta).

Se rinuncia a narrare l’evento in sé, il Mandralisca ritiene agevole e lecito parlare solo «de’ fatti seguiti alla rivolta», «in cui i protagonisti, già liberi di fare e di disfare per più di trenta giorni, eseguir gli espropri e i giustiziamenti che hanno fatto gridar di raccapriccio, ritornano a subire l’infamia nostra, di cose e di parole», cioè le fucilazioni sommarie e poi il processo a Messina. Per cui, come il romanzo rappresenta la preparazione della sommossa, così si sofferma sul quadro spaventoso del paese devastato da essa: le tombe del convento dei cappuccini scoperchiate, con i cadaveri sparsi all’aria aperta. la fontana con le carogne a galla nella vasca, «macelleria di quarti, ventri, polmoni e di corami sparsi sui pantani e rigagnoli dintorno, non sai di vaccina, becchi, porci, cani o cristiani», poi nella piazza del paese «orridi morti addimorati» che «rovesciansi dall’uscio del Casino e vi s’ammucchiano davanti, sulle lastre, uomini fanciulli e anziani. Pesti, dilacerati, nello sporco di licori secchi, fezze, sughi, chiazze, brandelli, e nel lezzo di fermenti grassi, d’acidumi, lieviti guasti, ova corrotte e pecorini sfatti. Sciami e ronzi di mosche, stercorarie e tafani.. Su questo turpe ammasso si avventano cornacchie, corvi, cani sciolti, maiali a branchi, «briachi di lordura», un «vulturume» «piomba a perpendicolo dall’alto come calasse dritto dall’empireo», «si posa sopra i morti putrefatti» affondando il rostro e strappando «da ventre o torace, un tocco», poi «s’ erge, e vola via con frullio selvaggio», mentre passa una carretta guidata da garibaldini, che costringono gli astanti i caricarvi i morti per portarli al cimitero. Consolo insiste su particolari orrorosi e ripugnanti ben più di quanto non faccia Verga, ma mentre in Libertà lo scrittore soffermandosi sulle atrocità punta a suscitare nel lettore reazioni emotive di sdegno e raccapriccio con tecniche di suggestione sotterranea, qui più che l’orrore in sé è in primo piano chi lo osserva, cioè il barone, con il suo atteggiamento dinanzi allo spettacolo: vale a dire che i brani descrittivi, come crediamo risulti chiaramente dalle citazioni, sono in primo luogo esercizi di bravura stilistica intesi a mimare il particolare idioletto dell’aristocratico intellettuale. L’orrore insomma è allontanato di un grado, sempre per presentare il personaggio filtro del racconto in una prospettiva critica, per equilibrarne l’eccessiva positività ed evitarne un ritratto apologetico, mostrando attraverso il linguaggio i limiti storici della sua cultura.

Alla prospettiva del barone, aperta a comprendere con acuta intelligenza politica e sociale le ragioni della rivolta, è contrapposta subito dopo la prospettiva contraria di chi conduce la repressione. Viene cioè riportato il discorso che il colonnello garibaldino, che già con l’inganno aveva indotto i rivoltosi a deporre le armi per arrestarli, rivolge alla popolazione del paese raccolta in chiesa, dopo il Te Deum di ringraziamento per la fine dei disordini. Nelle sue parole i prigionieri incatenati «non sono omini ma furie bestiali, iene ch’approfittaron del nome sacro del nostro condottiero Garibaldi, del Re Vittorio e dell’Italia per compiere stragi, saccheggi e ruberie. lo dichiaro qui, d’avanti a Dio, que’ ribaldi rei di lesa umanità. E vi do la mia parola di colonnello che pagheranno le lor tremende colpe que’ scelerati borboniani che lordaron di sangue il nostro Tricolore. […] L’Italia Una e Libera non tollera nel suo seno il ribaldume». La registrazione di queste parole, con tutto il loro livore forcaiolo, che arriva alla mistificazione di bollare come «borboniani» i rivoltosi, ha il compito di denunciare come i garibaldini non fossero solo i paladini dell’ideale, e tanto meno i portatori di una palingenesi sociale, come si erano illusi i contadini, ma semplicemente venissero a imporre un ordine solo esteriormente nuovo, che in realtà riproduceva in forme diverse l’oppressione di classe precedente. Un’opposizione così forte tra la prospettiva illuminata dell’intellettuale e quella reazionaria del militare portavoce degli interessi del nuovo ordine non può essere priva di significato: occorrerà quindi riflettere sul gioco di punti di vista congegnato dallo scrittore e cercar di capire la sua funzione nella struttura del testo. Però prima è necessario mettere in luce una più ampia opposizione che l’Autore costruisce per chiudere il romanzo, e che presenta caratteristiche analoghe, suscitando gli stessi problemi interpretativi.

3. LA SOMMOSSA ATTRAVERSO LE VOCI DEI PROTAGONISTI

Se il barone rinuncia a descrivere la rivolta per l’impossibilità di narrare come narrerebbero i contadini senza determinare un tradimento mistificatorio, alle voci dei rivoltosi viene egualmente dato spazio nel romanzo. Il Mandralisca infatti, recatosi nel castello dove erano stati rinchiusi i prigionieri, trascrive le scritte da essi tracciate col carbone sui muri del sotterraneo. È come il primo passo verso la realizzazione dell’auspicio formulato dal barone, che i subalterni dovranno scrivere da sé la propria storia.

In tal modo, attraverso le voci dirette dei protagonisti, emergono momenti fondamentali della sommossa e viene in qualche modo colmato il vuoto dell’ellissi che ne aveva cancellato la narrazione

Dalle scritte affiorano, in forme elementari e sintetiche ma cariche di una forma dirompente, le ragioni della rivolta, l’odio per i possidenti, la rabbia per i soprusi e le ruberie ai danni dei diseredati, al tempo stesso, per rapidi ed essenziali scorci, si profilano gli episodi più atroci, che sono affini a quelli descritti da Verga, ma invece di essere affidati a un narratore non neutrale, che indulge su determinati particolari per condizionare sottilmente il giudizio del lettore, sono lasciati, senza filtri, alle parole secche degli autori stessi delle efferatezze, al momento di scrivere ancora pienamente sotto l’impulso dell’odio che allora li aveva mossi. Unica eccezione è la seconda scritta, che solo all’inizio inveisce contro proprietari, pezzi grossi del consiglio comunale, parroci e «civili» che si sono appropriati delle terre del Comune escludendo chi ne aveva diritto, sia «galantuomini» sia «poveri villani»: chi scrive è un «galantuomo» egli stesso che, pieno di rabbia per essere stato estromesso dalla spartizione, ha capeggiato la rivolta, ma ora confessa di essersi pentito del processo devastante a cui aveva dato origine («Aizzai gli alcaresi a ribellarsi / ah male per noi / nessuno fu più buono / di fermare la furia / dei lupi scatenati), per cui chiede perdono a tutti. L’immagine dei «lupi» scatenati sembra proprio un intenzionale rimando, da parte dello scrittore, al lupo «che capita affamato nella mandra» di Libertà: ma certamente un suono diverso ha la stessa immagine usata da un narratore portavoce delle classi alte vittime della rivolta, delegato a esprimere l’esecrazione, il disprezzo e la paura che esse nutrono per la furia popolare, oppure impiegata da chi è stato dentro la sommossa e ora prende coscienza delle atrocità commesse, provandone orrore.

La scritta successiva evoca l’uccisione del nipote del notaio, al presente, come se chi scrive rivivesse in quel momento l’atto compiuto e ancora ne godesse: «Puzza di merda a noi / la sera di scesa nel paese / stano turuzzo / nipote del notaro / strascino fora / serro colle cosce / sforbicio il gargarozzo / notaro saria stato pure lui». Anche qui si inserisce un’evidente allusione a Libertà: la conclusione della scritta ripete quasi testualmente l’affermazione nella novella verghiana proferita da uno della folla dinanzi al figlio del notaio abbattuto con un colpo di scure dal taglialegna: «Bah! egli sarebbe stato notaio, anche lui!». Ma proprio il collegamento esplicito fa risaltare la distanza fra le due impostazioni del racconto. In Verga la registrazione della frase vale a gettare una luce sinistra sul cinismo disumano dei rivoltosi, qui invece la stessa frase riflette solo la comprensibile indignazione dell’oppresso contro gli oppressori e il suo bisogno di giustizia.

Inoltre in Libertà il ragazzo trucidato è biondo come l’oro, notazione che mira a conferire alla vittima qualcosa di puro e angelico, e quindi a potenziare il patetismo del racconto e a suscitare raccapriccio per la barbara uccisione dell’innocente; nel romanzo di Consolo invece questo ragazzo, nell’episodio a cui la scritta fa inizialmente riferimento, appare come una figura laida, ripugnante sia moralmente sia fisicamente: la sera prima della rivolta aveva schernito provocatoriamente, a imitazione del padre, pastori e fabbri al loro passaggio in piazza, sostenendo di sentire puzzo di merda, rivelando cosi l’odioso disprezzo della sua classe di privilegiati per i poveracci, per di più era descritto «grasso come ‘na femmina, babbaleo, mammolino, ancora a quindici anni sempre col dito in bocca, la bava e il moccio», ed era definito spregiativamente «garrusello», cioè effeminato. È evidente la volontà di rovesciare l’impostazione verghiana. Già nell’episodio della vigilia la figura appariva ignobile perché presentata attraverso la prospettiva dei villani insultati e la loro reazione furibonda, come rivelava il linguaggio adottato, che mimava quello dei villani stessi; poi nella scritta la descrizione dello sgozzamento viene subito dopo la rievocazione degli insulti, a far sentire come l’atto atroce sia scaturito dalla rabbia ancora viva e cocente per l’affronto subito da parte del rappresentante degli oppressori: per cui nella rievocazione dell’eccidio non si innesca alcuna reazione emotiva di commozione e sdegno per l’innocente trucidato, in quanto la vittima non è innocente per nulla, anzi, si ricava l’impressione che la feroce vendetta sia in qualche modo giusta.

Le altre scritte ricalcano sostanzialmente lo stesso schema, evocazione delle angherie ed efferata punizione. Un’ulteriore eco di Libertà è il giovane Lanza che cade senza un lamento, con gli occhi sbarrati «che dicono perché», e rimanda al don Antonio di Verga che cade con la faccia insanguinata chiedendo «Perché Perché mi ammazzate?.

L’ultima scritta, riportata inizialmente nel dialetto alcarese, afferma che «u populu

“ncazzatu ri Laccara» e degli altri paesi siciliani ribellatisi «nun lassa supra a facci ri ‘sta terra/manc’ ‘a simenza ri/ surci e cappedda», e termina nell’antico dialetto di Sanfratello, di origine lombarda: «mart a tucc i ricch / u pauvr sclama / au faun di tant abiss / terra pan / l’originau è daa / la fam sanza fin / di / libirtâá». La parola conclusiva, «libirtãà, sembra ancora un rimando al testo verghiano, ma se là risultava usurpata dai contadini che la intendevano solo come appropriazione delle terre, qui la libertà è decisamente identificata con la terra che dà pane, in coerenza con il discorso fatto in precedenza dal barone, inteso a rivendicare la base materiale che assicura contenuto reale a autentico ai valori ideali.

Il romanzo però non termina qui: dopo la riproduzione delle scritte, vi sono ancora tre appendici di documenti, di cui uno assume un’importante funzione strutturale. si tratta di un libello, a firma di tal Luigi Scandurra, pubblicato a Palermo nel 1860, che contiene una violenta requisitoria contro la decisione del procuratore di mettere in libertà gli accusati. Qui i fatti di Alcara sono presentati in una ben diversa luce rispetto alle parole del barone di Mandralisca e alle scritte sui muri del carcere: i rivoltosi sono definiti «una mano di ribaldi», «un orda di malvaggi [sic], spinti dal veleno di private inimicizie, e dal desio di rapina» che «assassinò quanti notabili capitò [sic] nelle sue mani. saccheggiando e rubando le loro sostanze e le pubbliche casse,

Come si vede la sommossa, dopo essere stata rievocata dall’interno, con le parole dei protagonisti stessi, viene presentata da un punto di vista opposto, quello degli uomini d’ordine, ferocemente ostili al moto popolare, di cui forniscono un quadro deformante, riducendone le cause a motivazioni ignobili di interessi personali e descrivendo gli oppressori come persone di specchiata virtù e come innocenti agnelli sacrificali. Però non si direbbe che la registrazione dei due opposti punti di vista, come già al capitolo settimo la contrapposizione tra la prospettiva del barone e quella del colonnello garibaldino, risponda a intenti di equidistanza e neutralità, come avviene in Libertà, dove a tal fine si alternano il punto di vista dei «galantuomini» e quello dei rivoltosi. La posizione dello scrittore si offre molto netta. Non vi è dubbio, come testimonia tutta l’impostazione del romanzo, che egli voglia presentare in una luce positiva il barone e abbia un atteggiamento estremamente aperto e disponibile verso la rivolta e le sue ragioni, nonostante ne sottolinei chiaramente i limiti politici e le atrocità, e che per converso la riproduzione del libello e dei discorsi dell’ufficiale assuma una forte valenza critica: i conservatori, attraverso la pura registrazione delle loro parole, della loro bolsa retorica, del loro lessico pomposo e approssimativo, delle loro sgrammaticature, denunciano tutto il loro livore forcaiolo e il loro squallore intellettuale e morale. Ma mentre Verga a dispetto dei propositi di obiettività punta su immagini e particolari di forte valore connotativo ed emotivo, che,

suggestionino nel profondo il lettore condizionandone il giudizio, Consolo al contrario, proprio con il gioco dei punti di vista, mira a suscitarne non l’emotività ma la riflessione razionale e la valutazione critica, quindi riesce a preservare la problematicità della rappresentazione.

L’analisi e del romanzo di Consolo a confronto della novella di Verga conferma quanto era facile aspettarsi, conoscendo le rispettive posizioni ideologiche dei due scrittori: cioè che la trattazione della sommossa contadina è condotta con tecniche di rappresentazione e assume una peculiare coloritura in rispondenza a tali posizioni. I rischi insiti nel pessimismo fatalistico di Verga, di ascendenza conservatrice, non sono stati interamente evitati in Libertà, come prova la scarsa problematicità della rappresentazione, dovuta all’atteggiamento autoritario del narratore, che predetermina rigidamente le reazioni del lettore in un’unica direzione (prima esecrazione per sommossa e poi pietà per gli autori delle efferatezze divenuti vittime). Ma rischi simmetrici ed equivalenti erano impliciti nell’ideologia di Consolo: l’impostazione “da sinistra’ poteva dare adito egualmente a rappresentazioni rigidamente univoche e a procedimenti manipolatori, oppure a soluzioni predicatorie, parenetiche, pedagogiche, propagandistiche, come testimonia certa narrativa sociale dell’Ottocento oppure del neorealismo novecentesco.

Ci sembra di poter concludere che tali rischi sono stati da Consolo evitati:(1) a ciò ha contribuito proprio la scelta dell’ellissi narrativa, la rinuncia a una descrizione diretta della sommossa, che sarebbe stata piena di insidie difficili da evitare; vi ha inoltre cooperato il gioco dei punti di vista, tra la prospettiva alta dell’aristocratico, aperto alle istanze popolari però ben consapevole dei rischi di una scrittura che scaturisse dalla cultura dei privilegiati, la voce diretta dei subalterni affidata alla riproduzione testuale delle scritte sui muri del carcere, ed ancora la voce dei conservatori rappresentata dalle tirate reazionarie del principe Maniforti contro la disonestà e le ruberie dei villani, dal discorso del colonnello garibaldino e dal libello contro la scarcerazione degli imputati.

(1) Su questo la critica é in genere concorde. Per Romano Luperini «attraverso il linguaggio, Consolo riesce a scrivere un romanzo politico senza invadenza alcuna di ideologia» (Romano Luperini, Il Novecento, Torino, Loescher, 1981, pag.868), tesi ripresa dal critico più di recente: «Lo sforzo polifonico di Consolo […] nasceva da un intento realistico di conoscenza e di giudizio (Toma, Rinnovamento e restaurazione del codice narrativo nell’ultimo trentennio: prelievi testuali da Malerba, Consolo, Volponi, in I tempi del rinnovamento, Atti del Convegno Internazionale Rinnovamento del codice narrativo in Italia dal 1945 al 1992, ( a cura di Serge Vanvolsem. Franco Musarra, Bart Van den Bossche, Roma, Bulzoni, 1995, p. 544), Per Massimo Onofri, in Consolo cultura e politica, letteratura e ideologia possono intersecarsi, senza che per questo la dimensione estetica si neghi a se stessa, risolvendosi in pedagogia sociale ed oratoria. Il critico richiama poi il rifiuto, da parte del protagonista di Nottetempo, casa per casa, Pietro Marano, dei versi di Rapisardi, il quale ricapitola in sé ‘tutti i tratti di una poesia civile e politica per cosi dire ingaggiata, sempre sul punto di travalicare nell’orazione»: Consolo invece è e resta scrittore politico proprio in quanto, nel contempo, elabora una sua implacabile condanna della retorica dell’impegno. […] Ciò significa che la disposizione politica della scrittura di Consolo si gioca prima di tutto sul piano della forma che su quello dei contenuti, «attraverso un’oltranza di stile»; la sua «è una letteratura che, in un’accezione tutt’altro che formalistica, ha fatto della forma una questione di sostanza» (Massimo Onofri, Nel magma Italia: considerazioni su Consolo scrittore politico e sperimentale, in ldem. Il sospetto della realtà, Saggi e paesaggi italiani novecenteschi,
Cava de’ Tirreni, Avagliano, 2004, pp. 195-197)

Tra storia e mistificazione La polemica contro il mito garibaldino nel romanzo di Vincenzo Consolo

Aneta Chmiel

Università della Slesia

Tra storia e mistificazione La polemica contro il mito garibaldino nel romanzo di Vincenzo Consolo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio alla luce di recenti studi

 Non a caso il romanzo di Vincenzo Consolo intitolato Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio è considerato uno dei maggiori contributi alla letteratura siciliana (Barbagallo, G., 2009: 15/6). L’opera narra della rivolta contadina avvenuta nel villaggio siciliano di Alcàra Li Fusi, all’indomani dello sbarco dei mille. Con una suggestività inconfondibile Consolo dipinge il quadro quasi fatato del paesaggio siciliano: Le montagne erano nette nella massa di cupo cilestro contro il cielo mondo, viola di parasceve. Vi si distinguevano ancora le costole sanguigne delle rocche, le vene discendenti dei torrenti, strette, slarganti in basso verso le fiumare; ai piedi, ai fianchi, le chiome mobili, grigio argento degli ulivi, e qua e là, nel piano, i fuochi intensi della sulla, dei papaveri, il giallo del frumento, l’azzurro tremulo del lino. Consolo, V., 2006: 7 Questa condizione d’eccezionale benessere nasconde tuttavia un mondo dove stanno per scoppiare tensioni profonde, forti ed irresistibili, dove regna il plurilinguismo e multiculturalismo e dove alla maggioranza siciliana si contrappone una comunità araba e all’elitaria aristocrazia si oppone il popolo e il proletariato. Le personificazioni espresse tramite le parole come: “le costole sanguigne”, “le vene discendenti”, “ai piedi”, “ai fianchi”, “le chiome mobili” denunciano un intento molto più che ovvio di animizzare quella terra, di mostrare il dolore subito dal suo corpo mortificato. Paradossalmente, la bellezza dei luoghi non solo menzionati, ma addirittura ricorrenti e presenti nel corso delle azioni diventa testimone degli scenari più sanguinari della storia. Il dramma del paese dei Nebrodi viene reso ancora più commovente quando ci si rende conto della gravità delle convergenze subite dai contadini innocenti durante lo scontro con le forze risorgimentali. Con questo romanzo lo scrittore vuole stabilire la misura del contributo delle masse contadine del meridione italiano nel Risorgimento, il ruolo dell’intellettuale negli importanti momenti storici e finalmente delineare il rapporto tra la letteratura e la storia, tra la memoria e il presente. Il protagonista del romanzo, il barone Enrico Pirajno di Mandralisca, appassionato malacologo, descrive gli episodi avvenuti che costituiscono un apporto importantissimo della vicenda risorgimentale, dato che rivelano il suo lato piuttosto oscuro. Presente in quasi tutti i capitoli, funge da coscienza del libro e anche da alter ego di Consolo (Segre, C., 2005: 130). Si può costatare che c’è una specie di appello alle facoltà empatiche del lettore davanti al quale il narratore cerca di svelare il mistero del prezzo che doveva pagare la Sicilia in nome degli ideali risorgimentali. Questa decisa presa di posizione incitò i lettori alla riflessione su un periodo della storia non del tutto glorioso. Il bisogno di raccontare questa storia non è scaturito solo dai ricordi personali dello scrittore, ma anche, o forse soprattutto, dalle riflessioni ispirate dal dibattito culturale svoltosi in quegli anni . Come prima approssimazione si potrebbe dire che, delineando le conseguenze dell’impresa risorgimentale in Sicilia, Consolo abbia ripreso la polemica non solo con la storia stessa, ma anche con la storia letteraria, e in particolare con il romanzo di Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, intitolato Gattopardo. Non solo nel clima e nella rappresentazione dello stesso avvenimento vi si possono scorgere delle analogie. Soprattutto le figure dei protagonisti costituiscono un’esemplificazione di una contrapposizione ben distinta. Don Fabrizio, anche se uomo potente, risulta impassibile mentre osserva gli avvenimenti che hanno contribuito alla storia, invece il barone di Mandralisca, al contrario, soffre questa drammatica realtà che sta accadendo. Gaetano Barbagallo caratterizza il romanzo con l’aggettivo “audace” e si deve acconsentirlo, soprattutto se si prende in considerazione la quasi mitica presenza dell’impresa garibaldiana nella coscienza degli italiani (Barbagallo, G., 2009: 15/06). Consolo entra nella polemica non solo con la rappresentazione dell’impresa unitaria, ma anche con il passato stesso, perché la sua narrazione è stata pensata come una lettura del presente. Come scrive Sandra Mereu, “il romanzo fu pensato in un momento storico in cui la generazione che nel sessantotto aveva sognato il rinnovamento politico e sociale si trovava davanti le tragedie e i disastri dello stragismo e del terrorismo” (Mereu, S., 2011: 11/08). Nel romanzo si ha un significativo ritorno al passato inteso come metafora del presente. Particolarmente attento al versante ideologico della narrativa italiana, Consolo tenta un’analisi condotta su tempi e luoghi. Lo scrittore svolge un complesso gioco di corrispondenze che simbolizzano soprattutto la crisi di valori. Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio diventa il simbolo di un atteggiamento di distacco dalle dolorose esperienze passate. Analogamente, la scelta della struttura narrativa risulta altrettanto simbolica. Consolo rompe la tradizione della stesura del romanzo storico, sperimentando una narrazione disarticolata, dove nel testo vengono inseriti documenti autentici o inventati o verosimili. Adamo, analizzando le strategie narrative impiegate da Consolo (Adamo, G., 2006: 72), definisce questo testo “antiromanzo storico” invece Cesare Segre suggerisce piuttosto la seguente perifrasi: “negazione del romanzo storico” (Segre, C., 1991: 77). Consolo tenta di rendere il testo verosimile mediante un ampio arazzo narrativo degli inserti documentari. Una simile operazione non meraviglia se la si considera come la volontà di intensificare il messaggio storicizzante e, al tempo stesso, l’espressione dell’impossibilità di accettare la realtà contemporanea. Anche per la chiarezza morale e la volontà d’impegno civile Consolo rinuncia al narratore onnisciente per dare la voce ai diversi soggetti che rappresentano punti di vista diversi. Il caso così anomalo della narrativa che induce il lettore a rivelare i segreti servendosi più dell’intenzione che della logica, risveglia l’interesse della critica e della ricerca. L’originalità della scrittura si manifesta, tra l’altro, nella sua poetica. Le didascalie delle acqueforti di Goya, indicate nel testo dal corsivo servono a descrivere gli effetti devastanti invece del racconto vero e proprio della stessa strage dei contadini. Non è tanto difficile rievocare, seguendo anche le suggestioni di Sandra Mereu, l’evidente associazione all’episodio manzoniano del Lazzaretto, quando si legge Carrettate per il cimitero e il nesso tra i monatti in divisa rosa e i garibaldini (Mereu, S., 2011: 11/08). Non solo in questo confronto delle immagini rievocate è leggibile la polemica di Consolo. Un fattore altrettanto suggestivo è la scelta del linguaggio poetico. Consolo decisamente rifiuta la lingua nazionale, identificandola con la lingua del potere, e ricorre all’impiego della lingua parlata da una variante minoritaria per dare omaggio e, soprattutto, per salvare dall’oblio la sorte dei più umili, “traditi da Garibaldi”. La contrapposizione: lingua nazionale — una parlata minoritaria oltre che il valore simbolico della metafora del presente assume il valore della polemica sull’integrazione nord — sud. Sandra Mereu si pone la domanda sull’universalità di questa strategia: “[…] se Consolo avesse scritto oggi quello stesso romanzo storico come metafora del presente, avrebbe utilizzato ancora la contrapposizione lingua nazionale — dialetti come simbolo di resistenza alla politica del Potere attuale?” (Mereu, S., 2011: 11/08). Dal punto di vista del lettore sembra rischioso introdurre un personaggio come Pirajno di Mandralisca, concentrato sui realia, intellettuale nell’ambito dove predomina la forza ingenua e incontrollata. Come spiega Vincenzo Consolo in una delle interviste, l’intellettuale dovrebbe caratterizzarsi per una certa responsabilità che consiste nell’esigenza e prontezza di esprimere un giudizio sulla storia e intervenire. Il barone Mandralisca, il protagonista, a causa dei fatti tragici avvenuti nella campagna siciliana nel 1860, lascia la malacologia per rivolgersi alla realtà drammatica. In questo significato il Mandralisca entra in polemica con il Gattopardo e Consolo si oppone a Lampedusa, il quale vedeva nei cambiamenti storici una sorta di determinismo (Bonina, G., IV: 92). Il clima de Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, in realtà, non è lontano dai fervori della contemporaneità. L’autore stesso ribadisce la contingenza dei tempi evocati nel romanzo e gli anni settanta. È troppo forte il legame con la Sicilia e nello stesso tempo con la sua cultura per cercare di trascurare i fatti della storia, anche quelli scomodi. Consolo riconosce il primato della letteratura e il ruolo dell’intellettuale, il ruolo principale dunque è quello di rivendicare una propria identità. Il romanzo, effetto di un processo di maturazione e di ricerca anche dal punto di vista linguistico e stilistico, diventa soprattutto un riflesso cosciente del contesto storico, sociale e stilistico. In questa sua scelta Consolo si ispira piuttosto a Sciascia che a Vittorini, perchè i temi presi in considerazione dallo scrittore appartengono al campo storico-sociale. In una sola cosa però Consolo si è distaccato da Sciascia e cioè nella scelta dello stile. Non vedendo una società armonica con la quale comunicare, ha adottato il registro espressivo e sperimentale. La scelta illuministica e razionale sciasciana ammetteva il senso della speranza, invece, la generazione successiva quella del Consolo non la nutriva più. (Sciascia su Risorgimento in Sicilia — Le parrocchie di Regalpetra). In risposta, Sciascia ha nominato Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio un parricidio sottintendendo, sicuramente, la frase di Skolvskij, secondo quale, la letteratura è una storia di parricidi e adozioni di zii (Bonina, G., IV: 92). La mimesi del romanzo, espressa tra l’altro, nella figura dell’erudito settecentesco, ha avvicinato il capolavoro di Consolo piuttosto a Verga, Gadda o Pasolini. L’evidente, non attenuata violenza del linguaggio non risente solo la restituzione di una realtà immediata, ma anche la dichiarata volontà consoliana di prendere una posizione nei confronti della storia. Tutto il rapporto che lega Consolo agli scrittori siciliani è posto su un duplice segno. Da una parte l’autore ammette di aver attinto ai suoi predecessori, e non nasconde il debito nei confronti della narrativa isolana, dall’altra invece, indica la scelta della propria, originale strada, la nomina nello stesso tempo parricida definendo così la propria vocazione. Per esempio, da Vittorini, che come saggista è stato ignorato, è stata presa un’altra caratteristica: la precisione della descrizione topografica quasi uguale a quella de Le città del mondo, la troviamo proprio ne Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio. Consolo chiama questo atteggiamento “più siciliano possibile […] più acribitico” (Bonina, G., IV: 92). Per dare un quadro trasparente della sua concezione della letteratura Consolo rievoca il parere di Moravia, secondo il quale “scrivere significa cambiare il mondo e narrare soltanto rappresentarlo” (Bonina, G., IV: 92). Importante che il movimento sia dal libro verso il lettore e che la scrittura abbia più peso e più influsso. Consolo sceglie invece l’aspetto espressivo della prosa, quasi orale, ritmica, basata sulla memoria. Il narratore sembra infatti, l’unico ad aver scelto questa strada della prosa artistica. Basilio Reale, per esempio, anche lui messinese ed esule a Milano nello stesso tempo si dedica però alla poesia. Anche se quasi in ogni libro è possibile rintracciare una trasposizione autobiografica, ne Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio del Consolo ce n’è poco. La Milano contemporanea costituisce per Consolo uno strumento per capire meglio la Sicilia. Grazie al soggiorno e alla vita milanese lo scrittore ammette di essere in grado di scoprire un’altra Sicilia più vera e infelice, toccata dall’ingiustizia e perdita di identità. In questo senso Consolo segue Pasolini, che parlava dello “scandalo della storia”, cioè la necessità della consapevolezza storica per fondare la consapevolezza del presente, della propria identità, della propria dignità (Puglisi, S., 2008: 116). Consolo fa un passo avanti rispetto ai suoi maestri siciliani: tramite i suoi libri varca la soglia della ragione segnata, tra l’altro, da Sciascia, verso l’ingiustizia e lo smarrimento. In una certa misura Consolo consolida l’atteggiamento di Vittorini che voleva che la Sicilia uscisse dalla condizione di inferiorità e di soggezione rivolgendosi verso un mondo di progresso. Solo che Vittorini credeva in un’utopia, Consolo invece, rappresenta un comportamento pieno di amarezza per un mondo che scende verso i valori più bassi. Il romanzo intitolato Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, pubblicato nel 1976 viene definito “il rovescio progressista del Gattopardo” e perciò entra in polemica con l’immobilismo di Tomasi di Lampedusa. L’intento dell’autore, legato indissolubilmente alla storia della propria terra natia, è quello di raccontare l’Italia degli anni Settanta attraverso un romanzo ambientato nel 1860, e più dettagliatamente, ai tempi dello sbarco di Garibaldi in Sicilia. parla addirittura della “convulsa realtà di quegli agiatissimi anni […]. Gli anni delle stragi nere e rosse, dell’esperienza folle delle Brigate Rosse, degli omicidi politici, con il sequestro e l’uccisione di Aldo Moro” Consolo ammette più volte di ricorrere volontariamente al genere del romanzo storico e in particolare risorgimentale. Secondo lui, è l’unica forma narrativa possibile per rappresentare in modo metaforico il presente e le sue istanze, la cultura, la scrittura e la letteratura incluse. Consolo stesso scrisse il suo romanzo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, in omaggio a Sciascia, e in particolare al suo romanzo Morte dell’inquisitore. Però non va dimenticato che alla base della stesura del romanzo vi si trovano almeno tre elementi principali: un’inchiesta sui cavatori di pomice svolta da Consolo per un settimanale, il fascino del quadro di Antonello da Messina, Ritratto d’ignoto e infine la rivolta di Alcàra Li Fusi avvenuta nel 1860. Quest’ultimo fattore è accompagnato da un dibattito sul Risorgimento così detto “tradito” chiamato altrimenti la Resistenza. Questa plurivocità del romanzo viene sottolineata per di più dalla presenza di documenti variamente manipolati. Un procedimento che rende una narrazione verosimile dal punto di vista della sua storicizzazione, ma che, nello stesso tempo, la nega perchè si prefigge di spiegare i fatti (Traina, G., 2001: 58). I due protagonisti del romanzo devono affrontare, ognuno dalla propria prospettiva, la resistenza del mondo contadino siciliano. Il barone Enrico Pirajno di Mandralisca, malacologo e collezionista d’arte, cercherà di comprendere le esigenze popolari, invece l’avvocato Giovanni Interdonato, il deuteragonista, rivoluzionario giacobino, svolgerà la funzione di staffetta tra i vari esuli e i patrioti dell’isola. I due protagonisti si incontreranno a causa della rivolta di Alcàra Li Fusi e del successivo processo e occuperanno due parti opposte: il barone difenderà i contadini insorti e chiederà di aver clemenza all’Interdonato che avrà assunto l’incarico di giudice. Il barone Pirajno di Mandralisca è un aristocratico intellettuale che per certi aspetti può assomigliare alla figura del principe Salina che giudica tutto con un certo distacco, ma qui le analogie si esauriscono. I protagonisti del Lampedusa si instaurano su un forte contrasto, tra l’altro generazionale, invece nel romanzo consoliano la relazione tra i protagonisti è piuttosto di carattere polemico. Con il ritorno al tema del mito risorgimentale Consolo vuole intraprendere una polemica contro chi intende il Risorgimento come movimento omogeneo ed ispirato da una sola frazione. Il Consolo volge l’attenzione del lettore verso le sollevazioni contadine che lottavano contro i balzelli e l’usura. I risvolti vengono imprigionati nel castello di sant’Agata di Militello il quale nel romanzo viene rappresentato come “immensa chiocciola con la bocca in alto e l’apice in fondo, nel buio e putridume” (Consolo, V., 2006: 136). Secondo Segre, la metafora della chiocciola attraversa tutto il romanzo rappresentando l’ingiustizia e i privilegi della cultura. Non a caso, il protagonista principale del romanzo di Mandralisca nelle sue ricerche si occupa di lumache. Per non ripetere quello che è già stato raccontato, Consolo rifiuta una narrazione classica e ricorre ai documenti e ai ricordi inventati dei personaggi realmente esistiti con lo scopo di concentrarsi sugli episodi. Grazie a questo procedimento il romanzo storico sfugge alla sua definizione tradizionale per acquisire delle sfumature e dei significati modificati. Negli anni Sessanta è stato ripreso il dibattito sui rapporti tra classi sociali e sulle possibilità di esprimersi da parte di esse. Siccome è stato costatato che le classi oppresse non erano in grado di farsi notare, Vincenzo Consolo, con questo romanzo, tenta di restituire loro, agli esclusi della storia, la propria voce. Secondo Consolo la Storia, l’hanno scritta i potenti e non gli umili, i vincitori e non i vinti. Per rendere ancora più trasparente questa divisione delle stesse classi Consolo fornisce praticamente ogni personaggio di un idioma: un brigante recluso parla il sanfratellano, il poco noto idioma gallo – romanzo, le guardie parlano il napoletano, Mandralisca usa un siciliano regolarizzato sul latino. L’italiano viene qui mescolato al dialetto siciliano il che vuole riflettere non solo l’impasto linguistico ma anche quello sociale, culturale, antropologico. In un’intervista Consolo ha affermato: “Ho voluto creare una lingua che esprimesse una ribellione totale alla storia e ai suoi miti. Ma non è il dialetto. È l’immissione nel codice linguistico nazionale di un materiale che non era registrato, è l’innesto di vocaboli che sono stati espulsi e dimenticati” il suo quindi è “un lavoro da archeologo”, che riporta alla luce ciò che è sepolto nella profondità linguistiche dell’italiano, non è una corruzione dell’italiano (Falco, A., 2009/02). Beniamino Mirisola nomina addirittura l’opera consoliana il Bildungsroman, indicando nello stesso tempo come il protagonista principale Enrico Pirajno barone di Mandralisca e proponendo la sua prospettiva interpretativa (Mirisola, B., 2012). Pirajno viene rappresentato come un aristocratico, intellettuale, che vive dedicandosi alla sua ricerca da erudito, finché le violente circostanze non lo costringono al confronto con la cruda realtà. Il barone dovrà sacrificare in nome della giustizia e della ragione il proprio patrimonio culturale e spirituale. Il Consolo non si astiene dalla parabola che rende privilegiata la tendenza di interpretare le vicende del protagonista in quanto riflesso delle sue letture ed idee politiche. Il percorso formativo del protagonista, a differenza dei personaggi tradizionali del genere, non è stato rappresentato come il nucleo del romanzo, ma piuttosto lasciato in disparte, in favore della già menzionata dimensione intertestuale ed ideologica. Il suo cambiamento è graduale, avviene a passi lenti. Del suo divenire possono testimoniare i momenti narrativi come quello dell’iniziazione, per esempio: il protagonista si trova su una nave, in viaggio, dunque in movimento, il che riflette la sua condizione: in discesa o ascesa perpetua, come nella scena seguente: “una strada dura, tutta il salita, piena di giravolte e di tornanti” (Consolo, V., 2006: 87). Privo di questo schema dell’evoluzione interiore, sembra che il protagonista, sfugga alla classifica intenzionale che viene subito in mente. E invece, anche se non del tutto fedeli al canone e alle esigenze del genere, il romanzo e i suoi protagonisti risultano assai trasparenti. Il barone Mandralisca si associa al principe Salina. Ne troviamo prove in una serie di interventi di vario tipo che hanno azzardato un’interpretazione sul messaggio contenuto nel romanzo. I teorici, fra cui Corrado Stajano, Antonio Debenedetti, Paolo Milano e Geno Pampaloni non vogliono solo leggere Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, ma gli attribuiscono le peculiarità seguenti: “antigattopardo” oppure “Gattopardo di sinistra”. Tutti però sono d’accordo che, ambedue gli autori: Consolo e Lampedusa, anche se hanno in comune certi aspetti, non coincidono per quanto riguarda la storia e il suo divenire (Mirisola, B., 2012). Lo definisce bene Cesare Segre, sempre in riferimento alla questione delle analogie tra le due opere: Consolo riprende dal Gattopardo solo lo spunto di un romanzo sulla Sicilia ai tempi dello sbarco di Garibaldi, con al centro un aristocratico che, essendo pure un intellettuale, è particolarmente portato a riflettere sui cambiamenti e a giudicare con qualche distacco, senza venire meno allo stile e alla sprezzatura della sua casta. Consolo, V., 1987: IX—X Il Consolo stesso rimane scettico per quanto riguarda le comparazioni tra i contenuti dei romanzi menzionati e ribadisce la loro futilità nel campo dell’analisi vera e propria del profilo del protagonista. Secondo lo scrittore sarebbe anche troppo rischioso identificarlo con il protagonista. Ammette invece, che le loro voci si accostano, ma solo nella seconda parte del romanzo. Un rapporto che pare ancora più stravagante se riusciremo a rievocare le origini letterarie del protagonista. Va sottolineato che lo scrittore si è ispirato a un personaggio realmente esistito di un nobile cefalutano e in questo modo ha garantito al suo protagonista uno statuto quasi autonomo. L’evoluzione del protagonista rappresentata in modo poco schematico, simbolico e significativo potrebbe essere un’altra caratteristica distintiva che avrebbe contribuito all’atteggiamento polemico verso la tradizione e la rappresentazione fino a quel momento adottata. Il barone di Mandralisca non ha paura di assumere le responsabilità dell’intellettuale in determinati momenti storici. Probabilmente si tratta di una sfida oppure di un invito a un’ulteriore presa di distanza dai suoi privilegi, dalla sua formazione e persino dalla sua cultura. Bibliografia Adamo, Giuliana, 2006: La parola scritta e pronunciata. Nuovi saggi sulla narrativa di Vincenzo Consolo. San Cesario di Lecce, Manni. Barbagallo, Gaetano, 2009: “Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio”: i Nebrodi nel risorgimento siciliano, Persone, http://nebrodinetwork.it/wp/?p=125 [l’ultimo accesso: il 12 novembre 2011]. 224 Études Bonina, Gianni, Anno IV, nº 92: Vincenzo Consolo. Padri e parricidi. Vincenzo Consolo: la sua scrittura, le sue opere e il suo rapporto con il lavoro di Sciascia e Vittorini. Tra debiti e superamenti dei modelli letterari. L’intervista, http://www.railibro.rai.it/interviste.asp?id=187 [l’ultimo accesso: il 14 dicembre 2011]. : Vincenzo Consolo. Consolo, Vincenzo, 1987: Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio. Milano, Mondadori. Consolo, Vincenzo, 2006: Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio. Milano, Mondadori. Falco, Annunziata, 2009: I riflessi letterari dell’Unità d’Italia nella narrativa siciliana, http:// dugi-doc.udg.edu/bitstream/handle/10256/1503/Falco_Annunziata.pdf [l’ultimo accesso: il 15 ottobre 2011]. Mereu, Sandra, 2011: “Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio” di Vincenzo Consolo. Libri, recensioni, http://94.32.64.110/www.equilibrielmas.it/website/Menu.php?menu=5244 [l’ultimo accesso: il 14 gennaio 2012]. Mirisola, Beniamino: Ragione e identità nel “Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio” di Vincenzo Consolo. Gli Scrittori d’Italia — XI Congresso Nazionale dell’ADI, http://www.italianisti.it/ FileServices/133%20Mirisola%20Beniamino.pdf [l’ultimo accesso: il 14 gennaio 2012]. Puglisi, Sandro, 2008: Soli andavamo per la rovina. Saggio sulla scrittura di Vincenzo Consolo. Acireale — Roma, Bonanno Editore. Segre, Cesare, 1991: Intrecci e voci. La polifonia nella letteratura del Novecento. Torino, Einaudi. Segre, Cesare, 2005: Tempo di bilanci. La fine del Novecento. Torino, Einaudi. Traina, Giuseppe, 2001: Vincenzo Consolo. Fiesole, Cadmo. Nota bio-bibliografica Aneta Chmiel è docente di Glottodidattica presso il Dipartimento di Italianistica dell’Universìtà della Slesia a Sosnowiec. Ha conseguito la laurea in lettere nel 1998 e nel 2002 ha ottenuto il dottorato. È autrice di vari articoli sulla letteratura italiana rinascimentale e contemporanea. Ultimamente le sue ricerche si concentrano sulla narrativa di Vincenzo Consolo

Il senso della storia nell’opera di Vincenzo Consolo

Cade qui opportuno parlare di un altro scrittore siciliano non certo meno colto e raffinato di Gesualdo Bufalino (di lui più giovane di poco più d’un decennio)1, ma a lui ideologicamente e letterariamente opposto: Vincenzo Consolo. Nella sua opera che qui come sempre, più che descrivere affronteremo per quanto servirà al nostro discorso più generale, non c’è infatti soltanto un fortissimo sentimento della storia, ma c’è pure il coraggioso tentativo, inevitabilmente sperimentalistico, di impostare il romanzo sul fondamento di una parola e di un fraseggio non turgidi ma icastici, quasi una traduzione istantanea del pensare e dell’agire degli uomini.

2 Siciliano dunque di Sant’Agata di Militello, «un paese – per ripetere ciò che ne scrisse Leonardo Sciascia2 – a metà strada tra Palermo e Messina (sul mare, Lipari di fronte, i monti Peloritani alle spalle)», sesto degli otto figli di un piccolo commerciante di prodotti alimentari, Consolo trascorse nell’isola adolescenza e giovinezza (tranne gli anni universitari a Milano) e del suo paese natale fece echeggiare, già nella sua “opera prima” (La ferita dell’aprile del 1963), quello che sempre Sciascia (che se ne intendeva) definì l’«impasto dialettale, la fonda espressività che è propria alle aree linguistiche ristrette, le lunghe e folte e intricate radici di uno sparuto rameggiare». Ed era quello (e ancora Sciascia lo sottolinea) non già un artificioso gaddismo siculo anziché lombardo, ma un prepotente volersi inserire da subito nella storia e in quella, precipuamente, di coloro che la vivono, come del resto accadde allo stesso scrittore, dalla parte degli sconfitti; la patiscono nelle sue ingiustizie e vi si ribellano, altro non potendo, con la parola e con la scrittura. La letteratura, in due parole, non come professione ma come impegno civile. Donde anche una notorietà raggiunta tutt’altro che facilmente3.

Il senso della storia

3 Ebbe a scrivere Marx nella Sacra famiglia4: «La classe possidente e la classe del proletariato rappresentano la stessa autoestraniazione umana. Ma la prima classe si sente completamente a suo agio in questa autoestraniazione, sa che essa costituisce la sua propria potenza ed ha in essa la parvenza di un’esistenza umana; la seconda, in tale estraniazione, si sente invece annientata, vede in essa la sua impotenza e comprende in essa la realtà di una – la sua – esistenza non umana. Per usare un’espressione di Hegel essa è, nell’abiezione, la ribellione contro questa abiezione, ribellione a cui essa è necessariamente spinta dalla contraddizione tra la sua natura umana con la situazione della sua vita, che è la negazione aperta, decisa, assoluta di questa natura». Ebbene: questo non facile compito di rappresentare nel profondo e come all’interno stesso della coscienza tale drammatico dilemma mi sembra quello assunto dal nostro Vincenzo Consolo, forse tra i maggiori scrittori italiani ancora in vita. C’è una sua pagina, nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio (1976) – questo romanzo (ma il termine è improprio come vedremo), che culmina nella rivolta contadina di Alcàra Li Fusi contro i feudatari del luogo al tempo della spedizione garibaldina dei Mille che, nel significato sopra proposto, mi sembra esemplare. Avendovi casualmente assistito, il protagonista del libro, l’appassionato malacologo barone di Mandralisca, di idee liberali ma lontano sino a quel momento dall’azione politica, non può esimersi, date le circostanze, da due decisive riflessioni: la considerazione cioè che esiste una storia dei vincitori e una dei vinti, scritta la prima e mai scritta la seconda, e che in questa drammatica dicotomia, perenne e a prima vista irresolubile, consiste precisamente la tragedia della Storia. Nell’atto di stendere una relazione sui fatti appena accaduti, e di stenderla come avrebbe fatto uno «di quei rivoltosi protagonisti moschettati in Patti», intuendo e avendo come già chiaramente presente tale versione in inconciliabile opposizione a quelle delle «gazzette e libelli» appartenenti, per così dire, alla voce ufficiale della storia, confessa e ammette l’impossibilità dell’impresa: «No, no!» dice 5 nel suo particolare linguaggio d’intellettuale siculo di metà Ottocento. «Che per quanto l’intenzione e il cuore sian disposti, troppi vizi ci nutriamo dentro, storture, magagne, per nascita, cultura e per il censo». Questo «scarto di voce e di persona» – ossia questo immedesimarsi nella classe del proletariato per dirla con Marx – gli appare un’azione scorretta; quanto meno un’impostura. Spiega difatti:

È impostura mai sempre la scrittura di noi cosiddetti illuminati, maggiore forse di quella degli ottusi e oscurati da’ privilegi loro e passion di casta. Osserverete: ci son le istruzioni, le dichiarazioni agli atti, le testimonianze… E bene: chi verga quelle scritte, chi piega quelle voci e le raggela dentro i codici, le leggi della lingua? Uno scriba, un trascrittore, un cancelliere. Quando [Mentre invece] un immaginario meccanico istrumento tornerebbe al caso, che fermasse que’ discorsi al naturale, siccome il dagherrotipo fissa di noi le sembianze. Se pure, siffatta operazione sarebbe ancora ingiusta.

4 Perché? Perché la classe dei possidenti, pur con tutto il suo presunto progresso, o forse proprio per questa sua presunzione, non ha la chiave per intendere la natura pur sempre umana dell’altra, che tuttavia la storia ha come lasciato nel suo analfabetismo secolare del corpo e dello spirito. Ascoltiamo ancora il barone:

Poi che noi non possediam la chiave, il cifrario atto a interpretare que’ discorsi. E cade acconcio in questo luogo riferire com’io ebbi la ventura di sentire un carcerato, al castello dei Granza Maniforti, nel paese di Sant’Agata [di Militello], dire le ragioni nella parlata sua sanfratellana, lingua bellissima, romanza o mediolatina, rimasta intatta per un millennio sano, incomprensibile a me, a tutti, comecché dotati d’un moderno codice volgare. S’aggiunga ch’oltre la lingua, teniamo noi la chiave, il cifrario dell’essere, del sentire e risentire di tutta questa gente? Teniamo per sicuro il nostro codice, del nostro modo d’essere e parlare ch’abbiamo eletto a imperio a tutti quanti: il codice del dritto di proprietà e di possesso, il codice politico dell’acclamata libertà e unità d’Italia, il codice dell’eroismo come quello del condottiero Garibaldi e di tutti i suoi seguaci, il codice della poesia e della scienza, il codice della giustizia o quello d’un’utopia sublime e lontanissima.

5 Fermiamoci un momento per sottolineare questo passaggio-chiave e davvero decisivo non solo per denunciare autocriticamente una frattura che appare incolmabile tra le due classi e le due “umanità”, ma per prenderne soprattutto atto onde iniziare, ed esattamente da qui, la pars costruens dell’impegno e del dovere politico. La storia, sostanzialmente dice il barone di Mandralisca, non appartenente alla classe dei cosiddetti illuminati e sicuramente dei possidenti, ha indubitabilmente compiuto nel corso dei secoli, e già da prima della nascita del Redentore, il suo cammino progressivo e feroce: il diritto di proprietà ha generato i suoi codici politici giuridici e culturali e, irridente, ha lasciato l’altra parte, quella sopraffatta, nei suoi, totalmente disattesi incomprensibili e disprezzabili. È col ferro che si costruisce la civiltà, proposizione inconfessabile ma vera. Quindi prosegue:

E dunque noi diciamo Rivoluzione, diciamo Libertà, Egualità, Democrazia; riempiamo d’esse parole fogli, gazzette, libri, lapidi, pandette, costituzioni, noi, che que’ valori abbiamo già conquisi e posseduti, se pure li abbiam veduti anche distrutti o minacciati dal Tiranno o dall’Imperatore, dall’Austria o dal Borbone. E gli altri che mai hanno raggiunto i diritti più sacri e elementari, la terra e il pane, la salute e l’amore, la pace, la gioia e l’istruzione, questi dico, e sono la più parte, perché devono intender quelle parole a modo nostro? Ah, tempo verrà in cui da soli conquisteranno que’ valori, ed essi allora li chiameranno con parole nuove, vere per loro, e giocoforza anche per noi, vere perché i nomi saranno intieramente riempiti dalle cose.

6 Ci si ricordi a questo punto della novella Libertà di Verga, relativa alla selvaggia rivolta di Bronte nel catanese e alla ancor più spietata e selvaggia repressione di Nino Bixio (4 agosto 1860): non potremo non renderci immediatamente conto della profonda differenza d’atteggiamento che nei confronti delle due rivolte, così prossime nei luoghi e nel tempo, hanno assunto due diversi esponenti della classe dei possidenti: in Verga la brutalità della sommossa e del suo castigo (giusto oltre che inevitabile) è appena addolcita, se così posso esprimermi, dal sentimento religioso della misericordia e in ogni caso, sul piano storico, assistiamo alla risoluta affermazione che le due classi antagoniste, quasi per decreto divino, dovranno eternamente coesistere nello statu quo («I galantuomini non potevano lavorare le loro terre con le proprie mani, e la povera gente non poteva vivere senza i galantuomini»); in Consolo, che ha ben più presente, anzi sommamente presente la natura umana delle due classi antagoniste, hai non solo il riconoscimento di quanto sia stata giusta la cruda ribellione contadina, ma anche l’inattesa affermazione che la classe dei possidenti, mancando dei necessari “codici” interpretativi, dovrebbe comunque astenersi dal giudicare un evento che ha in realtà appalesato l’ignominia umana della Storia stessa. E quando – e sia pur in un tempo remotissimo – anche la classe degli oppressi e dei vinti avrà conquistato i valori superiori della civiltà, essi saranno in ogni caso diversi da quelli acquisiti e comunemente intesi dagli appartenenti alla classe degli attuali possidenti: saranno «parole nuove, vere per loro e giocoforza anche per noi»; e «vere perché i nomi saranno intieramente riempiti dalle cose». Qui in realtà ci troviamo di fronte all’autentico “senso della storia” e, soprattutto, allo svelamento delle sue infamie morali, politiche ed economiche.

La difficile conquista della ragione

7«Gli uomini desti – ebbe a sentenziare Eraclito – appartengono a un mondo comune e solo nel sonno ognuno si apparta in un mondo a lui proprio». Potrebbe questo essere un motto da apporsi quale epigrafe a Retablo, quello scritto di Consolo del 1987 che fa come da intermezzo tra Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio e i successivi Nottetempo, casa per casa (1992) e Lo Spasimo di Palermo (1999), una trilogia che in un vorticoso crescendo svela gli inganni le crudezze e le insensatezze della storia, dalla cosiddetta unità d’Italia – in realtà la piemontizzazione della penisola – alle sopraffazioni del fascismo e ai crimini del momento che abbiamo appena vissuto (gli assassinî di Falcone e Borsellino). Retablo (come del resto e con ben maggiore evidenza il precedente Lunaria) è invece come un momento di pausa nel quale tuttavia, per il particolare discorso che veniamo conducendo, non mancano importanti e rivelatrici considerazioni. Nel secondo quadro del trittico, il più vasto e imponente intitolato Peregrinazione (siamo nel Settecento, l’età della borghesia illuminata, dei viaggi e delle grandi scoperte archeologiche, dell’entusiasmo per il dispotismo illuminato e in certo modo del ritrovamento dell’uomo nel nome della ragione), l’aristocratico pittore milanese Fabrizio Clerici, giunto con berbera navigazione nella favolosa Mozia de’ Fenici, si trova di fronte a orci ricolmi di «ossa antiche, più antiche di Cristo o Maometto, ormai polite e nette come ciottoli di mare» e, in più, «ossa d’innocenti»: si trova cioè in quel cimitero ove i Fenici di quest’isola seppellivano i fanciulli dopo averli sacrificati ai loro dei. Ma il riflessivo artista milanese, l’ideale compagno dei Verri e dei Beccaria, non inorridisce come il suo siculo valletto, l’innocente e sventurato Isidoro; spiega anzi come quei remoti navigatori aprirono per le vie del mare nuove conoscenze insegnando a tutti i popoli, ad esempio, l’alfabeto e la scrittura segnica dei suoni. Sennonché il fervore precettistico del savio milanese s’interrompe presto in questa riflessione quasi rivolta sottovoce a se stesso6:

Ma così mai sempre è la veritate della storia, il suo progredire lento e contrastato, il miscuglio d’animalità e di ragione, di tenebra e di luce, barbarie e civiltà. E troppo presto esulta, a mio giudizio, il barone di Montesquieu, nel suo essé titolato Esprit des lois, per la superiore civiltà dei Greci di Sicilia, per i Siracusani che, dopo la vittoria d’Imera, per volontà del loro re Gelone, imposero ai Cartaginesi nel trattato di pace d’abolire quell’usanza d’uccidere i fanciulli. Così dice il filosofo, il giurista (e qui riporto quanto ritiene la memoria mia): «Le plus beau traité de paix dont l’histoire ait parlé est, je crois, celui que Gélon fit avec le Carthaginois. Il voulut qu’ils abolissent la coutume d’immoler leurs enfans. Chose admirable!…» Ma ignorava il Montesquieu che i Siracusani stessi, col tiranno loro Dionisio, tempo dopo, espugnata e saccheggiata quest’isola di Mozia, punivano crocifiggendoli quei Greci mercenari che avean combattuto coi Moziesi. E vogliamo qui memorare le barbarie dei Romani o i massacri vergognosi che gli Ispani, nel nome di Cristo e della santa Chiesa, compirono contra i popoli inermi delle Nuove Indie? Ah, lasciamo di dire qui di quanto l’uomo è stato orribile, stupido, efferato. Ed è, anche in questo nostro che sembra il tempo della ragione chiara e progressiva. L’uomo dico in astratto, nel cammino generale della storia, ma anche ciascun uomo al concreto è parimenti ottuso, violento nel breve tempo della propria vita. Vive sopravvivendo sordo, cieco, indifferente su una distesa di debolezze e di dolore, calpesta inconsciamente chi soccombe. Calpesta procedendo ossa d’innocenti, come questi del campo per cui procediamo io e Isidoro.

8Gli uomini “desti”, coloro che sentono di appartenere a un mondo comune, che vivono in un mondo comune – gli uni accanto agli altri, gli uni per gli altri o gli uni contro gli altri – possono, sol che lo vogliano, comprendere cosa sia la storia, misurarne le ben maggiori atrocità e le ben minori ma confortanti virtualità; possono, sul fondamento delle riflessioni portate su di essa, rinnovarsi dal profondo, conquistare coscienza e consapevolezza di ragione, non disperare. In questo senso il lungo viaggio del milanese Fabrizio Clerici per la Sicilia del presente e del passato (fenicio, greco, cartaginese, romano, arabo, bizantino e via discorrendo) diviene un lungo, arduo itinerario non in Dio ma nella riconquista dell’umano e dell’umano intelligere; e non solo relativamente al protagonista-principe del racconto – il raffinato intellettuale Fabrizio Clerici – ma anche nei confronti, per così dire, del suo miserando Sancio Panza, quell’infelice fraticello che sfratatosi per amore, Isidoro, accompagna lungo tutto il viaggio il suo dominus vittima anch’egli – almeno in questo le due classi economiche e sociali appartengono alla medesima natura umana – d’una altezzosa nobildonna milanese che sta per divenire la marchesina Beccaria. Rendersi conto del perché di tutto ciò e ricostruire il vissuto (anche il sogno, anche il privato) alla luce di una ragione difficilmente conquistata e ancor più difficilmente conquistabile, costituisce l’impegno dei protagonisti degli scritti di Consolo, del loro autore che in essi rivive e inventando s’immerge (il che vale anche per l’esordio della Ferita dell’aprile), dell’uomo che si sforza di annientare la propria animalità per divenire veramente uomo. L’olivo e l’olivastro: l’umano e il bestiale, il coltivato e il selvatico.

9Un primo e riuscito tentativo di realizzare quest’arduo proposito è sicuramente consegnato in Nottetempo, casa per casa del 1992, una sorta di poema; come vorrei definirlo, che nei classici dodici canti svolge appunto il tema dell’uomo che atrocemente colpito da un’ignota offesa o sacrilegio, Petro Marano (dal suo nome di rinnegato? – gli abissi della storia), si sforza da sé solo di levarsi di dosso la continuata pena della sventura: la follia animalesca del padre, la stortura mentale che colpisce la sorella, la confusione babelica che corrompe persino il linguaggio, «stracangia le parole e il senso loro», onde «il pane si fa pena, la pasta peste, il miele fiele, la pace pece, il senno sonno»7. Ma converrà volger l’occhio sulla chiusa, su quella Fuga che porta in epigrafe un verso virgiliano: Longa tibi exilia et vastum maris aequor arandum. Che il destino, o Petro Marano, ti sia felice come quello d’Enea, sorride forse il lettore…

10 Petro comunque non è progenie di Venere. Suo padre ha avuto sì la buona sorte d’ereditare da un illuminato barone cui serviva, parte della terra e case che il defunto possedeva, ma il lascito non ha tardato a volgersi in offesa: “Bastardo” l’erede e “figlio del Bastardo” il figlio dell’erede; oltre che il livido, perenne rancore dell’espropriato. Il clima arcaico d’una società quasi ancora immersa nella pastorizia e nell’agricoltura con le sue tare ereditarie (la feudale arroganza dei grossi possidenti e la meschina miseria della plebe analfabeta) fa il resto; come fa il resto (siamo al principio degli anni Venti) il progressivo avanzare del fascismo, l’ubriacatura della media borghesia che delira per il dannunzianesimo, l’ormai evidente fallimento della cosiddetta questione meridionale (un fallimento, sia detto tra parentesi, consapevolmente progettato e voluto), la stravolgente devastazione irrazionalistica, da distruzione della ragione, storicamente rappresentata dal comparire in Sicilia della Grande Bestia dell’Apocalisse, alias Aleister Crowley, mago profeta e satanista. Inutilmente compare anche, quasi in conclusione della fabula, la figura di quel personaggio che un tempo si definiva l’eroe positivo – quel Cicco Paolo Miceli che, nonostante il suo aspetto da rachitico, aveva vivida la coscienza e gli occhi sempre accesi e il cui interesse primo «era la storia, la vita pubblica, la condizione al presente della gente, ché per la gente aveva attenzione, per la miseria»8: inutilmente. Nonostante un popolano amore ritrovato nel cui grembo avrebbe voluto entrare interamente e, rannicchiandovisi dentro e totalmente dimenticandosi, trovare finalmente la pace; nonostante l’enorme sforzo di solidarizzare con i ribelli e gli anarchici di cui pure non condivideva affatto, per così dire, il “dannunzianesimo di sinistra” (quello di un melmoso e parolaio Rapisardi), Petro Marano comprende che la riabilitazione non può che consistere nella fuga, ma una fuga che fosse insieme resurrezione: l’emigrazione a Tunisi come un emigrante qualsiasi, un emigrante «in cerca di lavoro, casa, di rispetto». Ed è su questo rispetto che vale la pena di posare particolarmente l’accento: rispetto per se stesso e per gli altri, per gli uomini desti di Eraclito, per gli uomini che appartengono al mondo comune e che lasciano al sonno quello infinitamente inferiore del privato; lo riscattano anzi dal suo dolore col proposito di darne, col tempo, meditata ragione. Per il momento e come in attesa di questo difficile risveglio, del sorgere di questo molto meno enfatico sole dell’avvenire, è l’ora del distacco – nottetempo e casa per casa – da un passato consapevolmente se pur dolorosamente respinto; da una memoria della quale si dovrà un giorno calcolare il peso, capirne a fondo il significato. «Andarono spediti col venticello di levante del mattino. Col cielo che appena si chiariva dietro la massa della Rocca, l’arco di luna, le stelle che smorivano, i lumi del paese, le lampare delle barche. Chiariva il mare, la scia della paranza. Vide nascere man mano e lontanarsi il Castello sopra il colmo, la roccia digradante, la balza tonda, il Duomo contro in tutta l’eminenza, San Domenico, la caserma, Marchiafava, il Monte Frumentario, e le casipole ammassate, le mura, gli archi, le infinite finestrelle, le altane, i làstrici sul porto… Conosceva quel paese in ogni casa, muro, pietra […] l’aveva amato. Ora n’era deluso, disamorato per quello ch’era avvenuto, il sopravvento, il dominio ch’aveva preso la peggiore gente, la più infame, l’ignoranza, la violenza, la caduta d’ogni usanza, rispetto, pietà…»9. Conosciamo tutti l’addio che Renzo diede alla patria; questo di Petro Marano fa balenare, attraverso la memoria, le infamie della Storia.

11 L’ultimo dei testi della trilogia di Consolo, Lo Spasimo di Palermo, è fuor di dubbio il più complesso, il più drammatico e il più attuale: perciò stesso, e quasi inevitabilmente, il più difficile di questi difficili libri; in certa misura il meno lineare nell’ossessivo affollarsi di passato e presente, nel contrapporsi di storia a memoria, nel vano bisogno di conforto che il ricordo potrebbe dare e che suscita al contrario un cocente sentimento di patimento, di sconfitta, di spasimo. Lo “Spasimo di Palermo”, beninteso, è riferito a un dipinto di Raffaello che ritrae la caduta di Cristo sul cammino del Calvario e allo spasimo della Vergine che, andata a lui incontro, rimane attonita davanti a tanto strazio del Figlio; ed è uno strazio ed uno spasimo che da Palermo e dalla Sicilia non tarda ad allargarsi al mondo intero, a questa società in cui la violenza nazi-fascista, sotto altre forme apparentemente più benevole, mercé il traino dell’ormai libero e selvaggio capitalismo, non ha fatto che inondare il mondo con la sua spietata corruzione. Dopo la guerra il dopoguerra. Cosa hanno fatto, di effettivamente positivo e concreto, le due generazioni che si sono via via succedute, quella del protagonista del libro, lo scrittore Gioacchino Martinez, e quella del figlio Mauro? La prima, anche nel turbine dei privati dolori, s’è «murata» nell’inerte «azzardo letterario»; la seconda, ritenendosi forte di una «lucida ragione», nell’azzardo temerario e inconcludente della lotta armata, del terrorismo. Ma è forse così che si costruisce una società nuova e civile, fondata sulla giusta convivenza? Questa amara confessione, che è implicitamente sottesa in tutte le aggrovigliate pagine del racconto, che in certo modo ne determina gli eventi e si concretizza in rimorsi che a loro volta prendono figura d’assurde e ossessive apparizioni; questa confessione si libera finalmente nel capitolo conclusivo sennonché, proprio al termine della confessione e della liberazione, esplode sotto casa l’attentato e la morte del giudice Borsellino. Aveva appena scritto il padre al figlio10:

Questa città [Palermo], lo sai, è diventata un campo di battaglia, un macello quotidiano. Sparano, fanno esplodere tritolo, straziano vite umane, carbonizzano corpi, spiaccicano membra su alberi e asfalto – ah l’infernale cratere sulla strada, per l’aeroporto! – È una furia bestiale, uno sterminio. Si ammazzano tra di loro, i mafiosi, ma il principale loro obiettivo sono i giudici, questi uomini diversi da quelli d’appena ieri o ancora attivi, giudici di nuova cultura, di salda etica e di totale impegno costretti a combattere su due fronti, quello interno delle istituzioni, del corpo loro stesso giudiziario, asservito al potere o nostalgico del boia, dei governanti complici e sostenitori dei mafiosi, da questi sostenuti, e quello esterno delle cosche, che qui hanno la loro prima linea, ma la cui guerra è contro lo Stato, gli Stati per il dominio dell’illegalità, il comando dei più immondi traffici.

12 Parole dure, icastiche e, soprattutto, veritiere; tali da evocare il rimpianto per il grande romanzo realista dell’Ottocento; parole che suggeriscono la figura super-umana del balzacchiano Vautrin che induce, simile a un Mefistofele, gli uomini che si dibattono nella loro insensatezza a prendere la via della realtà, ossia dell’abiezione capitalistica: la via dell’arrivismo nudo e crudo. Cosa viene qui particolarmente illustrato se non la disinvolta complicità, ormai neppur quasi dissimulata, tra uomini di governo e uomini di malaffare nel sostenersi reciprocamente nell’età in cui viviamo, in questo “dopoguerra” in cui il capitalismo, arrivato ormai a un potere senza più limiti, spinge gli uomini verso la degradazione più completa attirandoli progressivamente nelle spire della più profonda degenerazione? Il conte Mosca, in Stendhal, così formulava i suoi consigli a Fabrizio del Dongo: «La vita nella società somiglia al gioco del whist. Chi vuol giocare non deve indagare se le regole del gioco siano giuste, se abbiano qualche ragione morale o altro».

13Proprio mentre sta stendendo questa sua confessione-rapporto che vorrebbe essere in certa misura liberatrice, lo scrittore Gioacchino Martinez viene interrotto dall’attentato al giudice Borsellino11:

E fu in quell’istante il gran boato, il ferro e il fuoco, lo squarcio d’ogni cosa, la rovina, lo strazio, il ludibrio delle carni, la morte che galoppa trionfante.

Il fioraio, là in fondo, venne scaraventato a terra con il suo banchetto, coperto di polvere, vetri, calcinacci.

Si sollevò stordito, sanguinante, alzò le braccia, gli occhi verso il cielo fosco.

Cercò di dire, ma dalle secche labbra non venne suono. Implorò muto

O gran mano di Dio, ca tantu pisi,

cala, manu di Diu, fatti palisi!

14Allo scadere di duemila anni di civiltà post Christum natum i popolani si vedono ancora costretti a invocare la giustizia di Dio.

Memoria e romanzo

15Nel 1881, l’anno dei Malavoglia, Giovanni Verga non si faceva illusioni sul suo romanzo. «So anch’io – scriveva a Felice Camerini – che il mio lavoro non avrà successo di lettura, e lo sapevo quando mi sono messo a disegnare le mie figure»; eppure – diceva a un altro suo corrispondente – «se mai dovessi tornare a scriverli li scriverei allo stesso modo». Perché? Perché ciò cui lo scrittore mirò – come pure s’espresse altrove lui stesso – fu il tentativo di dare, attraverso semplicità di linee e uniformità di tono, l’efficacia della coralità dell’insieme e far sì che a libro chiuso, tutti i personaggi che l’artista aveva posto sulla pagina con il metodo del discorso indiretto e della rappresentazione degli eventi quali si riflettono nei cuori e nei cervelli d’essi personaggi, resuscitassero nella mente del lettore con l’evidenza di chi li aveva conosciuti di persona, nato e vissuto in mezzo a loro. Mai nessuno aveva prima tentato di dar vita a un’opera d’arte tanto collettiva, autonoma e capace d’imporsi solo in virtù della forza espressiva con la quale si presentava; e non a caso la chiusa del romanzo è rimasta memorabile: «Ma il primo di tutti a cominciar la sua giornata è stato Rocco Spatu».

16Che a Verga si colleghi consapevolmente Vincenzo Consolo è cosa ben nota e che lo stesso Consolo, anche adducendo particolari circostanze biografiche, orgogliosamente rivendica. E sin dall’esordio del ’63 con La ferita dell’aprile il cui incipit suona:

Dei primi due anni che passai a viaggiare mi rimane la strada arrotolata come un nastro, che posso svolgere: rivedere i tornanti, i fossi i tumuli di pietrisco incatramato, la croce di ferro passionista; sentire ancora il sole sulla coscia, l’odore di beccume, la ruota che s’affloscia, la naftalina che svapora dai vestiti. La scuola me la ricordo appena. C’è invece la corriera, la vecchiapregna, come diceva Bitto.

17Parrebbe, a prima vista, di trovarsi di fronte a un nuovo Pavese di Sicilia, ma ben presto ci si ricrede. Uno scampolo quasi a caso12:

Di fronte c’era il mare, alto fino ai nostri occhi, con la fila di luci di barche che facevano su e giù per l’acqua un poco mossa: parevano lanterne appese ad una corda, scosse dal vento. Domani si mangia sarde, ma la signora aspettava che fetevano prima di comprarle. Il faro di Cefalù guizzava come un lampo, s’incrociava con la luna, la trapassava, lama dentro un pane tondo: potevano cadere sopra il mare molliche di luna e una barca si faceva sotto per raccoglierle: domani, alla pescheria, molliche di luna a duecento lire il chilo, il doppio delle sarde, lo sfizio si paga: correte, femmine, correte, prima che si squagliano.

18La strada era dunque segnata. Si trattava ora di percorrerla con autonomia per dare nuova forma al genere romanzo. Come «epopea borghese» esso s’era dissolto – è stato detto e già ricordato – nella notte tra il 1 e il 2 dicembre del 1851 quando, sulle barricate, l’eroe dell’Educazione sentimentale flaubertiana Frédéric Moreau vede cadere Dussardier al grido Viva la Repubblica! e riconosce nell’agente di polizia il suo ex compagno di lotta “radicale” Sénécal; cominciava proprio allora, e nello stesso Frédéric Moraeu, la ricerca di quel tempo perduto che fonda la sua consistenza essenzialmente sulla memoria, ma sulla memoria del privato. Per Consolo, come del resto già accennavo, essa diviene invece lo strumento principale per indagare le vicende della storia, le grandezze e le infamie del passato, le ricadute sulle contraddizioni del presente: la memoria (la ricerca storico-culturale) come strumento di conoscenza. E ciò inevitabilmente esige, ripercuotendovisi, una diversa elaborazione del fraseggio, esige quella «furia verbale», come lo stesso Consolo ammette con le parole dello scrittore Gioacchino Martinez che più da vicino l’impersona, che in una diversa e dissonante lingua può finire in urlo o dissolversi nel silenzio13. In altri termini: la memoria come il medium insostituibile per ripercorrere tanto il vissuto personale quanto, e soprattutto, il passato collettivo, intrinsecamente congiunti; soprattutto quando si è nati e ci si è formati in Sicilia, la terra miticamente (ma in gran parte anche storicamente) più antica del mondo e già abbracciata da Ulisse. «Non so vedere – dice l’eroe14  – altra cosa più dolce, per uno, della sua terra»: un affetto d’uomo che risuonerà almeno, altissimo, fino a Ugo Foscolo; senza neppure dimenticare che furono i poeti dalla Magna Curia fridericiana a gettare le basi del volgare d’Italia: i primi poeti toscani, gli stilnovisti stessi, non fecero che tradurli com’è testimoniato dall’opera di Stefano Protonotaro da Messina. In questo senso si potrebbe persin dire che la ricerca formale di Consolo, sia stilistica sia lessicale, sia una sorta di ritorno alle origini.

19Nelle molteplici teorie avanguardistiche che si sono succedute alla dissoluzione del romanzo come epopea borghese – la celebrazione della borghesia nel suo vigore dissacratore e vincente del feudalesimo – c’è sempre un motivo di fondo comune: il senso di estraniazione e di solitudine. Per esse esiste solo l’individuo eternamente ed essenzialmente solitario, svincolato da ogni rapporto umano e a maggior ragione da ogni rapporto sociale; egli è “gettato” nel mondo quasi senza alcun senso e imperscrutabilmente, ond’egli finisce anche con l’illudersi che, in questo modo, gli si apra quell’infinita ricchezza di possibilità virtuali in cui fa apparentemente consistere la pienezza della sua anima. Non c’è nessuna realtà, c’è la coscienza umana, ebbe a dire Gottfried Benn. È essa che forma incessantemente i mondi della sua creatività, che li trasforma, li subisce e li modella spiritualmente. Ebbene: nulla di più lontano, rispetto a queste posizioni avanguardistiche e sperimentalistiche, dell’avanguardismo e dello sperimentalismo di Consolo. Egli potrà far ben dire allo stesso alter ego appena su ricordato15 che il romanzo rappresenta ormai un genere letterario «scaduto, corrotto e impraticabile»: sennonché lo scrittore ha saputo rinnovarlo in qualcos’altro, vale a dire in una forma letteraria nella quale il particolarissimo linguaggio mnemonico che pure ricorre (e tutt’altro che raramente) a improvvisi e quasi inattesi squarci lirici, cerca di fare i conti con la storica umana collettività (la terra di Sicilia ne è l’emblema) onde finalmente coglierne, al di là delle macerie di cui è disseminata, i momenti più vividi di pathos morale e civile.

NOTE

1 Bufalino nasce nel 1921; Consolo nel 1933.

2 Vd. la recensione al secondo libro di Consolo, Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio (Einaudi, 1976) e intitolata L’ignoto marinaio, ora in L. Sciascia, Opere 1971-1983, a cura di Claude Ambroise, Bompiani, Milano, 1989, pp. 994-98 (nella raccolta Cruciverba).

3 Altre poche notizie biografiche. Dopo gli studi elementari e medi frequentati a Sant’Agata (i secondi in un istituto salesiano poi liberamente rievocati nel libro d’esordio La ferita d’aprile del ’63 presso Mondadori); dopo quelli universitari e giuridici a Milano presso l’Università Cattolica, Consolo torna in Sicilia e stringe particolare amicizia con Lucio Piccolo e Leonardo Sciascia. Dal ’68 è a Milano addetto, nella sede milanese, ai programmi culturali della RAI. Il successo gli arride nel 1976 con il Sorriso del vecchio marinaio. Col successivo Nottetempo, casa per casa (1992) vince lo Strega. Vive ora a Milano.

4 Vd. F. Engels-K. Marx, La famiglia. In Opere, vol. IV, Editori Riuniti, Roma, 1972, p. 37.

5 La citazione da Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, Mondadori, Milano, 1997, pp. 113-14. Sul protagonista del libro, il barone Enrico Mandralisca di Pirajno, possessore del celebre dipinto di Antonello da Messina Ritratto d’ignoto, vd. quanto ne scrive Sciascia nel già ricordato (n. 2) L’ignoto marinaio.

6 6 Vd. V. Consolo, Retablo, Mondadori, Milano, 1992, pp. 115-16.

7 Vd. V. Consolo, Nottetempo, casa per casa, Mondadori, Milano, 1992, p. 140.

8 Ivi, pp. 109-10.

9 Ivi, pp. 109-10.

10 Vd. V. Consolo, Lo Spasimo di Palermo, Mondadori, Milano, 1998, p. 128.

11 È la pagina conclusiva del libro.

12 Vd. V. Consolo, La ferita dell’aprile, Mondadori, Milano, 1989, p. 31.

13 Vd. Lo Spasimo di Palermo, cit., p. 105.

14 Vd. V. Consolo, L’olivo e l’olivastro, Mondadori, Milano, 1994, p. 19. E vd. Omero, Odissea, 9 21-22.

15 Vd. supra la nota 13.

Il senso della storia nell’opera di Vincezo Consolo
Ugo Dotti Biblioteca Aragno

Gualberto Alvino La lingua di Vincenzo Consolo* Nuova edizione riveduta e corretta

Esattamente tre lustri or sono pubblicai prima su «Italianistica»,1 poi in una raccolta di studî di materia siciliana,2 una ricognizione linguistico-stilistica ad ampio raggio dell’opera consoliana maggiore giovandomi, quanto al lessico, dei repertorî allora disponibili. La successiva uscita degli ultimi volumi del Grande Dizionario della Lingua Italiana3 e del Vocabolario Siciliano, 4 le infinite risorse offerte in séguito dalla rete e l’avanzamento degli studî, all’epoca poco più che germinali, mi consentono oggi, oltreché di emendare refusi e imprecisioni, di perfezionare alcune proposte interpretative fondandole su solide basi scientifiche. Ringrazio Alfredo Stussi dei preziosi consigli e Salvatore C. Trovato per la sua cordiale e competente disponibilità. A Ghino Ghinassi e Giovanni Nencioni, che vollero generosamente e affettuosamente assistermi durante la prima stesura del lavoro, un pensiero commosso e riconoscente di qua dalla soglia. Roma, 15 gennaio 2012 * * * verticalizzarlo [il romanzo], caricarlo di segni, spostarlo verso la zona della poesia, a costo di farlo frequentare da “felici pochi”. VINCENZO CONSOLO 1. Meraviglia che la critica più avvertita sia sempre stata perfettamente unanime nell’assegnare alla prosa narrativa di Vincenzo Consolo un luogo mediano tra le turbinosità espressive delle scritture macaroniche e il lucido razionalismo nutrito di passione storico-politica avente in Leonardo Sciascia l’interprete egregio. In verità, se l’oltranza dei procedimenti e la speciosità dell’ammasso verbale non possono non richiamare alla tradizione composita che dall’eclettismo comico-caricaturale del Dossi, attraverso gl’impasti di Giovanni Faldella, mena direttamente all’officina gaddiana,5 * Da G. Alvino, La parola verticale. Pizzuto, Consolo, Bufalino, pref. di Pietro Trifone, in corso di stampa per l’Editore Loffredo di Napoli nella collana «Studi di italianistica», diretta da Claudio Giovanardi. 1 «Italianistica», XXVI, 2, 1997, pp. 321-33. 2 G. Alvino, Tra linguistica e letteratura. Scritti su D’Arrigo, Consolo, Bufalino, introd. di Rosalba Galvagno, «Quaderni Pizzutiani IV-V», Roma-Palermo, Fondazione Pizzuto, 1998, pp. 61-101. 3 Grande Dizionario della Lingua Italiana, fondato da Salvatore Battaglia, poi diretto da Giorgio Bàrberi Squarotti, 21 voll., Torino, UTET, 1961-2002. 4 Vocabolario Siciliano, fondato da Giorgio Piccitto, a cura di Giovanni Tropea (il V vol. a cura di Salvatore C. Trovato), 5 voll., Catania-Palermo, Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani-Opera del Vocabolario siciliano, 1977-2002. 5 Operando le debite distinzioni, come avvisa Cesare Segre: «Consolo va certo avvicinato […] a un altro grande romanziere plurivoco e pasticheur, al massimo anzi del nostro Novecento, Gadda. Essi hanno in comune la voracità linguistica, la capacità di organizzare un’orchestra di voci, il risultato espressionistico. Tuttavia […] c’è una differenza sostanziale: la plurivocità di Gadda ha sempre una carica polemica. Gadda irride ai rappresentanti della società di cui parla citando o deformando i suoi ideologemi […]. Consolo realizza soprattutto un , 5 nulla parrebbe confermare la reale consistenza della seconda ipostasi, salvo l’insistita, a tratti viscerale accentuazione tematica di alcuni passaggi nelle opere più lodate e le numerose dichiarazioni programmatiche dello stesso autore (circa le quali dovrà quantomeno invocarsi il più ampio beneficio di inventario): E fare lo scrittore allora, per quelli della mia generazione, significava una cosa sola: indagare e testimoniare la realtà, fare lo scrittore sociale. […] Io credo nel significato non solo letterario ma storico, morale, politico di questa ricerca. Io cerco di salvare le parole per salvare i sentimenti che le parole esprimono, per salvare una certa storia.6 Un tratto indubbiamente significativo, che tuttavia, alla luce d’una ricognizione esauriente, non tarda a confessare la propria indole strumentale, quando non esattamente pleonastica. Il molto celebrato engagement del Nostro meriterebbe, infatti, finalmente studio. Alcuni specimini della sua modestia sociologica: E cos’è stata la Storia sin qui, egregio amico? Una scrittura continua di privilegiati. […] Ed è impostura mai sempre la scrittura di noi cosiddetti illuminati, maggiore forse di quella degli ottusi e oscurati da’ privilegi loro e passion di casta (SIM 96-97) Ma che siamo noi, che siamo? […] Formicole che s’ammazzan di travaglio in questa vita breve come il giorno, un lampo. In fila avant’arriere senza sosta sopra quest’aia tonda che si chiama mondo, carichi di grani, paglie, pùliche, a pro’ di uno, due più fortunati. E poi? Il tempo passa, ammassa fango, terra sopra un gran frantumo d’ossa. E resta come segno della vita scanalata, qualche scritta sopra d’una lastra, qualche scena o figura (Le pietre di Pantalica, Milano, Mondadori, 1990, pp. 73-74) Lingua della cultura come mezzo di sfruttamento dell’uomo sull’uomo; fugacità e insensatezza del vivere subalterno; esecrazione del privilegio sociale; glorificazione degli umili e degli oppressi, catafratti nella santità della loro negletta tribolazione: articolare l’esegesi sopra un così dimesso regesto di tòpoi equivale a snaturare la cifra autentica, e finora esclusiva, dell’arte consoliana, tutta inscritta nel radicale, sdegnoso rifiuto d’una convenzione linguistica giudicata insieme sintomo e causa dell’attuale decadenza morale, civile e culturale. Se, poi, a tal rifiuto corrisponda un sempre risorgente rigoglio inventivo anziché una innocua iterazione di forme e stilemi è questione vitale e centralissima che sarebbe urgente dirimere. Fin dalla prima comparsa7 la portata dell’operazione fu d’altronde sùbito patente: rara perizia nell’amministrazione della cosa linguistica; ripudio dei modelli narrativi convenzionali – segnatamente del genere romanzo –, con la conseguente attivazione d’uno sperimentalismo convulso, non immune da tentazioni eversive; esuberanza dell’elemento retorico con annessa eterogeneità degli ingredienti cromatici; intrepida accostamento vivacissimo, materico di materiali fonici, lessicali, sintattici […]. Si colgono spesso movenze ironiche o parodiche, ma sono equamente indirizzate al mondo ritratto» (La costruzione a chiocciola nel «Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio» di Vincenzo Consolo, in Id., Intrecci di voci. La polifonia nella letteratura del Novecento, Torino, Einaudi, 1991, pp. 71-86, alle pp. 85-86). 6 V. Consolo, «Leggere», II, 1988, pp. 8-15. 7 La ferita dell’aprile, Milano, Mondadori, 1963, poi Torino, Einaudi, 1977, edizione cui si fa riferimento con la sigla FA. Questo l’elenco delle altre opere narrative maggiori qui sottoposte ad esame, con le relative abbreviazioni: Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, cit. (SIM); Retablo, Milano, Mondadori, 1992 (R); Nottetempo, casa per casa, Milano, Mondadori, 1994 (NCC); L’olivo e l’olivastro, Milano, Mondadori, 1994 (OO).  mescolanza di codici; esaltazione del livello fonosimbolico, esibito come pura virtualità, crudo istituto, citazione culturale; preponderanza dell’interesse formale congiunta al più sfrenato edonismo pluristilistico. Un’olla podrida ribollente di tensioni difformi, talora esorbitanti da una schietta urgenza poetica, su cui incombe costantemente il pericolo del feticismo lessicale, del funambolismo sintattico e, se si potesse dire, della glottolatria. Di questo converrà qui discutere (in prospettiva diacronica – se s’indulge all’inevitabile ricorsività delle notazioni analitiche –, così da ripercorrere passo passo un itinerario discontinuo e talora eclatantemente contraddittorio), tenendo fermo che scrittori come Consolo – pur tutt’altro che inappuntabili, come vedremo, da ogni rispetto – costituiscono una risorsa preziosa e vitale per la prosa letteraria italiana, oggi più che mai in profondissima crisi. 2. Nell’intento di levare a dignità storica e letteraria l’oralità mutevolissima e transeunte d’un popolo, il siciliano, in odore di mitico emblema tradizionale (l’impianto apparentemente naturalistico tradisce un ruolo in fatto sovrastrutturale), la compagine linguistica di FA – conformemente alle estetiche della verisimiglianza espressiva in voga negli anni Sessanta – è orientata in direzione decisamente demotica anzitutto sul piano dello stile. Oltre alla sistematica, seppur tenuemente indicativa, predilezione di parere e pigliare contro sembrare e prendere, colpisce la disseminazione capillare d’un indiretto libero debordante nel monologo interiore, finalizzato non solo a una mimesi del parlato di forte suggestione, ma alla disgregazione della voce narrante in una coralità impersonale e acremente lirica: S’era inventato l’arte delle lame: rubava chiodi di mulo ai maniscalchi e il resto lo faceva la rotaia col treno che passava; brillavano al sole che parevano d’argento, con cinque lire pretendi pure il manico? allatta qua, gioia di mamma (54) E poi: quella scritta andava in alto, sopra la corona, o ai piedi dell’altare? Tra loro, se la sbrigassero tra loro, Squillace Costa il sorvegliante Seminara, io l’altarino lo vedrò bell’e conciato: dimoro, dimoro qua, alla marina (113) Diffusissime le tematizzazioni, sia nel discorso diretto che in quello autoriale, intese a riprodurre la corposa immediatezza del milieu sociale rappresentato: «Mùstica i temi li faceva buoni» 16, «Aveva due valige e la leggera gliela portavo io» 27, «tutto lo spirito se l’era messo nella tasca dietro» 41. (Si noti che ai nostri fini il rapporto fra stratificazione delle voci e resa verbale è del tutto ininfluente, non solo in quanto «l’orchestra che il narratore dirige è composta di una sola voce infinite volte rifratta: la sua»,8 ma soprattutto perché in Consolo l’incursione del diegetico nel dialogico e il conseguente assoggettamento linguistico del personaggio da parte del narratore sono legge). Di egual segno le duplicazioni di moto rasente luogo, di matrice dialettale9 8 Cesare Segre, Polifonia e punto di vista nella comunicazione letteraria, in Id., Intrecci di voci, cit., p. 5. 9 Nell’accezione proposta da Bruno Migliorini, Lingua d’oggi e di ieri, Caltanissetta-Roma, Sciascia, 1973,  («Sbucarono dalla testa del faro le barche riva riva» 61, «e, muro muro, me n’andai fuori» 130) o adibite a mansioni elative, non solo a livello avverbiale e aggettivale ma perfino di verbo e sostantivo, con esiti cromatici notevoli: «Soffrigge presto presto la cipolla» 89, «E si mise teso teso, quasi sull’attenti» 14, «Con la funzione che dura dura, sempre fermi» 5, «Solo una tralignò, a que’ morti morti dove si trova» 110 (sic. a ddi morti morti unni si ṭṛova). Non meno rilevante l’articolato complesso delle opzioni sintattiche. Spicca su tutte l’uso dell’indicativo in luogo del congiuntivo («C’era bisogno che s’angustiava tanto?» 19, «c’era sempre quella palma nana nana che pareva si seccava» 27), ancorché non manchino casi in avverso, a testimoniare la stridente compresenza di livelli incompatibili (nel secondo esempio ulteriormente marcata dall’omissione del che completivo, estranea al registro popolare): «Si mise a raschiare e a tossire, poveretto, che pareva avesse i gatti dentro il petto» 10, «Filippo non volle lo aiutassi» 28. Se caratteristico del siciliano è il perfetto con valore di passato prossimo («Non sei cangiato. Quando tornasti?» 44, «[…] queste cose si tengono in panza, capisti?» 45), panmeridionale è l’uso di come a ‘come’ («pareva un caruso come a noi» 27) e la sostituzione di da con di nelle espressioni del tipo «vestito di maggiore» 81. Ampiamente profusa la ridondanza pronominale («A Tano Squillace gli morì il papà» 21, «Seminara pareva gli era morto a lui» 21) e l’uso del ci attualizzante, talora con agglutinazioni grafiche proprie della scrittura popolare («gli alza la maglia e che cià per la vita?» 94), nonché l’impiego affettivo-intensivo del pronome: «mi do la licenza magistrale e me ne vado» 38, «mi leggevo un manifesto» 117. Tra i provvedimenti topologici la collocazione postnominale del possessivo («scancellò Sara e ci mise la firma sua» 21) e il più fragrante dei sicilianismi: l’ubicazione clausolare del verbo: «lo stesso odore avete, tutta la casa lo stesso odore ha» 19-20, «tutti cristiani siamo, tutti uniti dobbiamo stare» 57, «La prima volta era?» 63. In àmbito morfosintattico si evidenziano una serie di locuzioni d’area siciliana, quali a cangio ‘invece’ («la poteva accontentare a cangio di smaniare ogni sera» 65), a uso ‘come’ e a uso che ‘come se’ con l’indicativo: «combinata a uso signorina» 92, «inginocchiato, a uso che pregavo» 11. Largamente rappresentati alcuni popolarismi di natura morfologica. Oltre al ci dativo polivalente («O guardaci la roba che ci portarono i mericani a tua sorella!» 15), forme comico-analogiche di coniugazione («protestava che da solo la puoteva» 28, «Se qualche signore vuol toccare […], s’accomodisca» 50) e un tratto tipico dell’oralità siciliana: la preposizione articolata scissa: «Cercai Filì […] a la marina» 130-31. Assai più variegato il bottino fonetico: dall’elisione caricaturale della lingua aulica («culo grosso com’un avvocato» 74, «lo scruta con ansia mentr’egli odora» 89) all’aferesi vocalica – con oscillazioni nell’uso dell’apostrofo – e sillabica nel dimostrativo («na cavallina in caldo» 18, «– Qua, alla bocca dell’anima, ciò sempre ’na vampa» 99, «non capivano ste cose» 15) alla preferenza accordata a forme tipo que’, de’ ecc., in posizione non solo avantonica: «que’ stronzi» 26, «que’ bastardi» 47, «la p. 314. 9  connivenza de’ pezzi da novanta» 71, «[…] se’ tutto bagnato» 137. Ma la tastiera di Consolo è inesauribile: non una nota, non una sfumatura tonale tace all’appello. Ed ecco, all’opposto versante del preziosismo e della suggestione letteraria, l’imponente investimento della convenzione metrica: un connotato originalissimo che riscontreremo in tutte le opere successive.10 Il primato spetta all’endecasillabo, isolato o in gruppi, ma non è raro imbattersi in catene variamente misurate, sempre al governo d’una intenzionalità calcolatissima e sapiente: sia attraverso inversioni funzionali («[…] il baffo me lo taglio, e le basette» 32, «Accanto le sedeva suo nipote» 47) sia mediante apocopi sillabiche o forme sintetiche desuete della preposizione articolata: «All’istituto i preti han già le cotte» 90, «Il padre di Merì ha la dentiera, / le scarpe troppo lunghe pel suo piede, / la donna con i serpi e la coccarda / all’occhiello della giacca / che gli cade sotto il culo» 71.11 Come s’è visto, il secondo campione è nettamente scandito in una sequenza di tre endecasillabi e due ottonarî, anche col sussidio della punteggiatura ritmica. Esempî del genere sono regolarmente distribuiti: sfinita per il pianto e per le grida: / pareva il pavimento l’inghiottiva, / molle com’era^e abbandonata / senza respiro, senza movimento (64) gambe invischiate lente a trascinarsi, / schiene ricurve sotto il cielo basso, / la mano gonfia con le dita aperte; / il gallo sul pollaio / che grida per il nibbio / e il cane che risponde petulante. / Il cane e un altro cane e tutti i cani (69) si portano nel sole a scatarrarsi, / a togliersi l’inverno dalle ossa, / disegnano il terreno col bastone, / spaventano l’uccello e la lucertola. / Le donne sui balconi, alle finestre (73) Lo scampanio entrò dalla finestra, / era la chiesa vecchia e la Matrice, / lontane quelle sorde all’istituto, / fiaccate dalle schegge. / Il mezzogiorno a festa / dura quanto di notte / l’allarme per il fuoco / o per le barche a mare (100) Le mine son le nespole mature / ed i baccelli gonfi delle fave [si noti come l’apocope sillabica nel primo “verso” e la dentale eufonica nel secondo obbediscano a precise necessità mensurali] (115) Il tessuto fonico si presenta oltremodo ricco e composito. Rime e quasi-rime («Ci vuole poco ormai per la sera, il sole se ne calò a Puntalena e l’aria da grigia comincia a farsi nera» 93, «si sbottonò il cappotto ed era nudo SOTTO»12 133, «e allora si scosse, s’accorse» 65), assillabazioni, giochi allitterativi e parallelismi ingegnosi («buio fitto, fino al paese a filo» 31, «coi piatti i timpani i triangoli i tamburi, le trombe a tutto fiato» 78, «– Mia madre mi morì, – mi disse piano» 114, «una luna e l’altre allato due stelle» 134) appesantiscono la scrittura fin quasi a vanificare la tensione narrativa in un’adorazione estenuata del significante. Ma è in campo sintattico che letterarietà e preziosismo vengono perseguiti col più massiccio spiegamento di forze. Le enumerazioni asindetiche con eliminazione della punteggiatura («L’avanzata i cannoni i guastatori i lanciafiamme; la ritirata la steppa il 10 I primi a rilevarlo, in un prezioso studio mirato a SIM, furono Alessandro e Mughetto Finzi, Strutture metriche nella prosa di Vincenzo Consolo, «Linguistica e letteratura», III, 2, 1978, pp. 121-35. 11 Scansione nostra, come nei successivi lacerti. 12 Maiuscolo nel testo. 10 OBLIO II, 5 freddo la fame» 12, «Getsemani la cena le cadute la croce lo spasimo il tabuto» 90-91); il costrutto impersonale preceduto dal pronome di 4ª persona («e noi tutti s’andava al catechismo» 48); la costruzione assoluta del complemento di qualità: «guardava oltre, gli occhi alti e fissi» 29, «Gesù, cuore infiammato su tunica bianca» 55. Due gli aspetti morfologici eminenti: la riduzione dell’imperfetto di 3a persona («e il Costa ch’avea portato il braccio avanti» 6, «la bussìca che gli crescea davanti» 87) e la preposizione articolata sintetica: «mormorava pei trasferimenti» 27, «se ne partiva pel bosco a far carbone» 37-38. Tra i fatti fonetici, se s’ignora l’unico caso di prostesi («per isbaglio» 108), impiegatissima l’apocope vocalica facoltativa, sempre rigorosamente preconsonantica («mi mandò al salone a far le saponate, poi il sarto, ad infilar le aguglie e levar l’imbastiture» 34-35, «per me l’avevan fatto» 74), e l’osservanza d’un tratto toscoletterario quale la regola del dittongo mobile: «moveva le dita tra i ceci» 29, «e il mulo non moveva un piede» 97. È però nel reparto lessicale che l’espressivismo cruento ed estremistico di Consolo si libera nella più ampia e fastosa gamma d’articolazioni: recupero di parole antiche o disusate,13 neologismi d’autore, e soprattutto adattamenti di vocaboli dialettali, in netta prevalenza siciliani.14 3. «Come sono raffigurati i pensieri nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio? V’è una inarrestabile discesa spiraliforme dal palazzo del barone Mandralisca e dalla buona società in cui si congiura contro i Borboni […] all’eremo di Santo Nicolò, alla combriccola di Santa Marecùma, sino ai villici e braccianti di Alcàra Li Fusi […]; le volute diventano gironi infernali con la strage di borghesi perpetrata ad Alcàra […] e bolgia ancora più fonda quando nelle carceri sotterranee di Sant’Agata vengono racchiusi i colpevoli […]. Questa discesa è anche linguistica: al sommo c’è il linguaggio vivido e barocco dei primi capitoli; negli inferi […] le scritte compendiarie dei prigionieri […]. Ma questi due estremi linguistici e le realizzazioni intermedie non si sovrappongono a strati, bensì alternano o si mescolano, sempre secondo uno schema elicoidale».15 Siamo, è evidente, agli antipodi della prova esordiale: una lingua in costume d’epoca stratificata di multiformi varianti stilistiche ma ruotante sul cardine della soggezione fonoprosodica e d’un cultismo latineggiante lussuosamente drappeggiato. Si legga un dialogo come il seguente, frazionato in limpide unità melodico-semantiche da coro greco: — È aceto, malicarni, aceto! — Aceto? — Aceto? — Miracolo! 13 Accanire, p. 124 rigo 1; chiocco 9726; fragoso 1054 ; lontanarsi 589 ; sgravo 5618; spantarsi 1154 ; sprovare 3418, ecc. 14 Cfr., infra, Coniazioni originali e Dialettalismi. 15 Cesare Segre, La costruzione a chiocciola, in Id., Intrecci di voci, cit., p. 81.  Il romito è santo! — Ha stracangiato l’acqua nell’aceto! — Frate Nunzio beato! — Sulla trazzèra ebbe la visione. — E urlò di piacere e meraviglia. — E perse i sentimenti. — E il controllo di sfintere. (62) o si soppesi l’esibita maestria di certe manipolazioni soprasegmentali («dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e banchina» 27, «una greca creta cotta di fattura liparitana» 95) e la segnalata subordinazione dei contenuti-significati al conglomerato formale risalterà perentoria, come lo stesso Segre dové rilevare (pur con la titubanza dovuta al fondamentale apprezzamento d’un valore inconcutibile) nelle conclusioni del saggio citato, là dove si afferma che «è difficile respingere l’impressione di un certo manierismo o barocchismo nei risultati formali. Questo manierismo (o barocchismo) è probabilmente inteso a far esplodere il linguaggio medio, spingendolo contemporaneamente verso i livelli più alti e quelli più bassi dello spazio linguistico. Ciò non toglie che il fascino della pagina di Consolo stia proprio (o anche) nella sua ardua giunzione con i principi enunciati».16 Assoluzione con riserva che non si esiterebbe un istante a controfirmare se solo fosse dato sottrarsi alla oggettiva constatazione che «C’è sempre un di più d’indugio, un edonismo fonico-lessicologico in questa, come in ogni scrittura così densa».17 Densa e opulenta fino al parossismo. A partire dalla strabordante congerie delle manovre topologiche, prevalentemente fomentate da una vocazione musicale altrettanto esteriore quanto incontenibile. Sia la dislocazione degli epiteti («urlanti parimenti e agitati» 27) e l’inversione del soggetto («Sembrava, quella, una tovaglia stramba» 45, «S’abbracciarono i due amici sulla scala» 71); l’iperbato – talora violentato fino alla sinchisi – e il collocamento del verbo in clausola («E gli occhi aveva piccoli e puntuti» 5, «– Chi è, in nome di Dio? – di solitaria badessa centenaria in clausura domanda che si perde nelle celle» 8, «niente da invidiare aveva» 83, «castello a carcere adoprato che il principe Galvano visitare mi fece» 114); la posposizione latineggiante del possessivo («covava un amore suo» 3, «il padre suo tornato d’oltretomba» 114) e il legato aggettivo etnico/relazionale-sostantivo («sveva discendenza» 99, «solare luce» 119) o la tmesi servile-infinito e ausiliare-participio («E narrar li vorrei siccome narrati li averìa un di quei rivoltosi» 96); sia, infine, l’enclisi pronominale, con risultati parodistici in tutto gratuiti nella loro inaudita amplificazione: «scogli, sui quali infrangonsi di tramontana i venti e i marosi» 4, «e giù per funi calaronla» 82, «e il territorio popolossi» 116, «faceala, a mio giudizio, ingrandire» 116. L’ordito sintattico è tendenzialmente scabro, nervoso, fratto in blocchi asindetici nominali o in membri paratattici modulati da filze d’infiniti con funzione vivacizzante: Luccichìo, al vacillare de’ moccoli, dei manici di rame del tabuto, piedi a zampe di grifo, impugnatore d’oro a raggera sul manto di velluto nero di sette spade nel cuore di Maria, spalancati occhi d’argento, occhio fisso, 16 Ivi, p. 86. 17 Ivi, p. 85. 12  occhi, cuori fiammanti, canne a salire e scendere d’ottone sopra l’organo. Oltre i lumi, nell’ombra del soffitto e delle mura, precipitare di teschi digrignanti, voli di tibie in croce, guizzare di scheletri da sotto lastre, sorgere da arche, avelli, scivolare da loculi, angeli in diagonale con ali di membrana che soffiano le trombe (65) Frequentissime le enumerazioni caotiche, in cui l’eliminazione della punteggiatura – o il suo esasperato impiego – produce esiti poco meno che ossessivi: dritti soprusi abusi angherie e perangherie … (testatico sopra ogni animale da soma che carico di cereali arriva a Cefalù, dritto del macello cioè sopra ogni bove porco e altro animale che si macella, decima sulla calce, decima sopra tutte le terre cotte, decima sulle produzioni ortilizie e sulle trecce d’agli, decima sulla manifatturazione e immissione delle scope, grana sopra legno e carbone, duodecima sopra vini mostali, dritto di dogane di mare e di terra cioè d’ancoraggio falangaggio e plateatico, decima sopra il pesce cioè sarde acciughe e pesce squamale, dritto di terragiolo (15) Anche presente la sillessi tosco-letteraria e del tipo «Ce n’è tanti» (61) e consistente nel costrutto impersonale introdotto dal pronome di 4ª persona: «La cosa più sensata che noi si possa fare» 98. Ma due i maggiori fatti sintattici conferenti all’impaginazione testuale una togata patina classicheggiante: il participio presente con valore verbale («alte flessuose palme schiudenti le vulve delle spate» 6, «verdi chiocciole segnanti sulla pietra strie d’argento» 6) e la costruzione assoluta del complemento di qualità: «Schiuma l’eremita, voce raggelata nella gola, sudore e tremito tremendo nelle ossa» 61. A livello morfosintattico, oltre al violento arcaismo rappresentato dal gerundio retto da in («ma, in guardandolo, colui mostravasi uno strano marinaio» 5), l’articolo determinativo in forma debole dinanzi a z e a s complicata, sovente d’intenzione prosodica: «proteggevano il zappatore» 15 (novenario), «ne’ sfilacciati albagi» 105 (settenario), «col passo ferragliante dei speroni» 111 (endecasillabo). Più ampio e variegato il ventaglio degli accorgimenti morfologici. Dalla rinunzia, metricamente mirata, alla labiodentale sonora nella 3a persona dell’imperfetto («festeggiare soleano nei quartieri» 80, «Ma giugnea fraditanto una carretta» 109) al condizionale siciliano in -rìa («Il genio mi ci vorrìa dell’Alighieri» 105, «sennò sarìa stato eretico per paganità» 116); dalla preposizione articolata desuetamente scissa («a le vicende loro» 6, «pronti a vergar su le carte» 100) e sintetica («Dieci salme le scassai pel vigneto» 17, in cui, si noti, la forma analitica romperebbe la misura versale) alle varianti analogiche o arcaiche di coniugazione («uno vivuto sempre sulla terra» 5, «noi, che que’ valori abbiamo già conquisi» 97). Foltissimo il fascio delle variazioni fonetiche. Elisioni a facile effetto sonoro: «sicuro […] ch’occhi indiscreti non scoprissero la sua debolezza» 70; apocopi d’ogni tipo: «Torrazzi […] ch’estollon i lor merli» 4, «l’umìl saluto» 86, «passion di casta» 97, «diè ordine» 78; dittonghi discendenti ridotti: «E son peggio de’ corvi e de’ sciacalli» 98 (endecasillabo di 3a e 6a ), «Alle grida s’affacciò da’ cunicoli» 77 (endecasillabo sdrucciolo). Tratto grafico-fonico peculiare delle scritture macaroniche, qui spinto a conseguenze 13 OBLIO II, 5 estreme, l’indiscriminata solerzia nell’apposizione dei segnaccenti18 (càpperi 31, bàsola 33, làstime 42, trazzèra 87, codardìa 88, viòlo 92, ecc.), manifestamente adibita a distrarre l’attenzione dalla sfera semantica per concentrarla sull’architettura formale. Alla maggiore complessità del quadro linguistico non può non corrispondere un più acceso dinamismo lessicale. Mentre s’affinano, moltiplicandosi, le modalità delle procedure onomaturgiche (non più d’esclusiva natura compositivo-dialettale, bensì, coerentemente con la materia trattata, arcaico-letteraria) e s’intensifica il ricorso al tesoro dialettale, lo scenario ottocentesco determina un cospicuo arricchimento del vocabolario arcaico.19 4. Pubblicato dopo un decennio di silenzio rotto solo dall’ispido pastiche favolisticoteatrale Lunaria20 (del quale condivide ambientazione siculo-settecentesca e inappagato oltranzismo barocco), il terzo romanzo di Consolo si colloca all’àpice d’una sperimentazione votata al globale assorbimento della materia e alla pietrificazione dell’impulso narrativo in formula rigidamente preconfezionata. Assoluta mancanza di selettività; abbattimento del confine tra prosa e poesia con l’ineluttabile, perniciosa perequazione di suono e senso; ostentazione di convenzioni e istituti espressionistici squadernati allo stato puro in un cerimoniale orgiastico sostanzialmente inoffensivo: tali i limiti più inquietanti d’una scrittura che, quale quella di R, aspira innanzitutto a significare sé stessa, offrendosi come spettacoloso intrattenimento: Rosalia. Rosa e Lia. Rosa che ha inebriato, rosa che ha confuso, rosa che ha sventato, rosa che ha róso, il mio cervello s’è mangiato. Rosa che non è rosa, rosa che è datura, gelsomino, bàlico e viola; rosa che è pomelia, magnolia, zàgara e cardenia. […] Lia che m’ha liato la vita come il cedro o la lumia il dente, liana di tormento, catena di bagno sempiterno, libame oppioso, licore affatturato, letale pozione, lilio dell’inferno che credei divino, lima che sordamente mi corrose l’ossa, limaccia che m’invischiò nelle sue spire, lingua che m’attassò come angue che guizza dal pietrame, lioparda imperiosa, lippo dell’alma mia, liquame nero, pece dov’affogai, ahi!, per mia dannazione (9-10) È l’incipit, ma si dica pure l’ouverture di questa sinfonia governata da una vis compositiva eminentemente ritmica, affatto scevra da preoccupazioni comunicative, soggiogata dal demone della tecnica e della libera associazione sonora, «con 18 Con oscillazioni e discordanze notevoli: un dato che il Nostro condivide in toto col suo conterraneo e per certi versi omologo Stefano D’Arrigo. 19 Aere 8615; ascoso 8721; binoculo 11118; dappoiché 1014 ; jiumenta 10433; mercatante 2812; poscia 11112; prope 10826; ricolta 10019; ricoverto 11837; tòrre 6324; tuttavolta 10525; unisonanza 177 , ecc. 20 Torino, Einaudi, 1985, su cui Segre ha steso pagine superbe, agevolando l’accesso all’intero universo espressivo consoliano: «La prima [conclusione] è che la scelta delle componenti linguistiche non è fatta corrispondere rigidamente al tipo e livello dei personaggi; la seconda è che la differenza tra prosa e poesia non corrisponde all’opposizione diegetico/dialogico. La prima conclusione significa che Consolo, pur differenziando in linea di massima la lingua dei personaggi, lascia che entro questa, nei momenti della concitazione o dell’emozione o della partecipazione, traspaia la propria, con tutta la gamma dei suoi registri. Il sicilianismo o il termine letterario o latino non fungono da “ideologemi”, ma rientrano nel complesso delle funzioni evocative organizzato dallo scrittore. La seconda conclusione conferma l’osmosi caratteristica di Consolo tra prosa e poesia, con predominio di quest’ultima» (Teatro e racconto su frammenti di luna, in Id., Intrecci di voci, cit., p. 100). profusione vocabolaristica da vecchia scuola accademica».21 Un nome, nulla più che un flatus vocis sezionato nei suoi componenti – Rosa/Lia – s’incarica d’imprimere il movimento iniziale alla sfarzosa, caotica malia melica polifilesca riboccante d’anafore, corrispondenze, marinismi, retoriche agudezas, liturgie mensurali, virulente ibridazioni. Caoticità litanica non ridotta d’un ette dall’ordinamento alfabetico del nome (Lia), del verbo seminventato liato da esso tratto22 e della filza d’apposizioni inizianti per l- come Lia (liana libame licore lilio lima limaccia lingua lioparda lippo liquame: unica eccezione letale, retto in compenso da un altro tipo d’ordine: il chiasmo licore affatturato | letale pozione). Sta in fatto che l’effetto più abbagliante resta quello d’un’arida compulsazione vocabolaristica. Che sarebbe, s’intende, non solo lecito, ma godibilissimo in un autore che non s’impuntasse, come il Nostro, a professar fedi di natura storica e sociopolitica ponendole alle basi del proprio lavoro. Ma torniamo al ritmo. Un compendio del dirompente genio metrico di Consolo: E gli occhi tenea bassi per vergogna (12) La visïon di quegli ordegni bruti (26) fuga notturna in circolo e infinita (28) e qua e là son poggi di riposo (31) privato vale a dire del cervello (42) Ma Mele dico ei doversi dire (68) I’ mi trovai disteso, e non so come, / fra le dune di sabbia sulla riva, / con gente intorno a me che parlottava (104) Si veda come, nel primo caso, la misura sia garantita dall’iperbato e dall’imperfetto arcaico; nel secondo da una caricata apocope vocalica compensata dalla dieresi; nel terzo dalla dislocazione degli epiteti; nel quarto, oltreché dall’apocope, da un enfatizzato polisindeto di profumo ariostesco; nel quinto da un’aspra inversione; nel sesto da un latinismo sintattico (accusativo + infinito) arricchito da insistite allitterazioni23 e dal poliptoto giocato sulle due voci del verbo dire. Il settimo brano, marcato da un arguto avvio stilnovistico,24 valga ad esemplificare la disseminazione nel testo di veri e proprî microcomponimenti poetici non di rado variamente assonanzati (ma qui il secondo e il terzo endecasillabo sono apparentati persino da una quasi-rima: riVA / parlottaVA). Emerge, fin da questa rapida rassegna, l’oceanico profluvio degli ingredienti mescolati 21 Vittorio Coletti, Storia dell’italiano letterario. Dalle origini al Novecento, Torino, Einaudi, 1993, p. 381. 22 Cfr., infra, Dialettalismi. 23 Il libro ne è letteralmente infarcito: «carriole, carretti carichi di sacchi» 15; «Fra merda e fango e fumi di fritture» 15; «un gran gracchiar di nacchere, rimbombi di timballi» 42; «mele o melle, o meliàca, che ammolla e ammalia ogni malo male» 68, ecc. 24 Non mancano citazioni poetiche: «in sul calar del sole» 34, «E sedendo e mirando» 73, quest’ultima presente anche in SIM 98 insieme al manzoniano «scendea per uno di quei vicoli» 107.  e messi a macerare nel capientissimo (e inimitabile) calderone gaddiano. Un tessuto stilistico irto d’incisi richiami rinvii sincopature miranti a riprodurre la libertà costruttiva della sintassi classica: Una più alta onda, a un certo punto, sferzando fortemente la fiancata, fece rotolare ancora, e trasbordare, tranciando salmi, inabissar nell’acqua, salvandoci sicuramente da naufragio, la mia statua (125) o a bruciare nel più parossistico manierismo formale e nell’invasata possessione litanica nevrastenia e risentimento: Vascelli, brigantini, galeoni, feluche, palmotte, sciabecchi, polacche, fregate, corvette, tartane caricavano e scaricavano, nel traffico, nel chiasso, nell’allegria della banchina, le merci più disparate: sale per primo, e in magna quantitate, quindi tonno in barile, di quello rinomato di Formica, Favognana, Scopello e Bonagìa, e asciuttàme, vino, cenere di soda, pasta di regolìzia, sommacco, pelli, solfo, tufi marmi, scope, giummara, formaggi, intrita dolce e amara, oli, olive, carrube, agli, cannamele, seta cruda, cotone, cannavo, lino alessandrino, lana barbarisca, raso di Firenze, carmiscìna, orbàci, panno di Spagna, scotto di Fiandra, tela Olona, saja di Bologna, bajettone d’Inghilterra, velluto, flanella, còiri tunisini, legnami, tabacco in foglie, rapè, cera rustica, corallo, vetro veneziano, mursia, carta bianca (127) col solo esito di raschiare la massa verbale devitalizzandone la polpa in un trionfale quanto edulcorato inno alla musica. A comprovare il sostanziale eleatismo, sotto mentite spoglie eraclitee, del mondo linguistico consoliano, la sconcertante iterazione dei procedimenti: i medesimi, salvo numeratissime eccezioni, già prodigalmente investiti nei romanzi precedenti (pur tanto dissimili, si badi, sia per ambientazione storica sia quanto all’organizzazione del materiale inventivo) e che ritroveremo rotondamente identici nelle opere posteriori. Valga uno schematicissimo excursus. In àmbito sintattico: costruzione assoluta del complemento di qualità («Ansava come mantice d’organo […], grave il respiro fora dalle labbra» 68) e participio presente con valore verbale: «sommessamente mormorante paternostri» 141. Dal rispetto topologico: inversioni («Amenissima, polita e levigata corre la strada» 31, «E più beato ancor si fece e deliziato» 54); tmesi d’ausiliare e participio nonché di fattitivo e infinito («quello loro l’avea Isidoro miracolosamente trasformato» 95, «sparir li faceva in una sacca» 44); ubicazione clausolare del verbo alla latina («sorge dal mare e tutt’il cielo indora» 23, «altr’òmini, che in ozio parevano» 35); dislocazione degli epiteti («a netti cuori e ardenti vi scaldate» 23, «una catena d’alti colli e scabri» 25, «vostro divoto amico e ammirante» 26, «grecanica fattura nobilissima» 38); posposizione del possessivo («nel breve peregrinare mio per il mondo» 134, «che la bellezza tua stava nascosta» 150); enclisi pronominale («E sfigurossi poscia in viso» 55, «lasciavansi crescere la chioma» 59, «lacerossi gli abiti» 143); chiasmi: «siamo fermi, fermi sprofondiamo» 110. In area morfosintattica: infinito sostantivato e gerundio preposizionali («in latteggiar purissimo de’ marmi […], in rosseggiar d’antemurali» 24, «certo, in leggendolo […] vi donerà gran tedio» 136) e articolo in forma debole davanti a z, non di rado a scopi ritmici: «nella ripresa del zufolo e del sistro» 55. Nella morfologia: preposizione articolata sintetica («l’inferno pel rimorso del peccato» 13, «sacconi di bombarde pei legni che vi salpano» 25) e scissa («ne la luce di giugno» 25, «follia dolce de l’ingegnoso hidalgo» 49); coniugazioni arcaiche: «Io mi chiedei allor» 49, «giùnsimo al punto più alto» 52, «vìdimo che si svolgea […] una processione» 140); accumuli preposizionali («con la sua spina velenosa in su nel core» 9, «e disparì in dentro d’una porta» 36); eliminazione prosodicamente funzionale – nell’imperfetto di 1a , 3a e 6a persona – della labiodentale sonora: «venia ad investirmi sulla faccia» 18, «facea sinistramente cigolare» 26, «la sospingeano da una vasca all’altra» 120. Sempre amplissimo, in territorio fonetico, lo spettro delle fattispecie citabili. Dittonghi discendenti ridotti nei monosillabi («preso da’ Turchi, da’ corsari» 17, «que’ bagni celebrati dagli antichi» 55); preferenza per le forme monottongate (ova 12, òmini 15, scotersi 138, foco 149, core 151, ecc.); elisioni con se, da, su e coi plurali («mi chiese s’ero pratico di strade» 16, «mi preservi e salvi d’ogni dolore» 29, «stava immobile s’uno sgabello» 120, «col linguaggio ascoso dell’allusioni» 132); apocopi vocaliche e sillabiche («nell’umile mestier del facchinaggio» 27, «nell’aer lieve dell’ora antelucana» 53, «m’abbracciaro e baciaro a uno a uno» 37); aferesi d’ogni tipo: state ‘estate’ 56, Stambùl 74, sendo 95, straneo 122, ecc. Quanto al registro demotico, da segnalare i numerosi intarsî dialogici pluridialettali (nei quali eccelle la collocazione siciliana del verbo in clausola); l’impiego di tenere per ‘avere’; l’aferesi vocalica dell’articolo indeterminativo («E ’na volta eran l’ova, ’n’altra la cassatella, ’n’altra la cedrata» 12) e sillabica nel dimostrativo: «’sto cavalèr foresto, ’sto galantomo, ’sta perla di cristiano» 59. Pur dominato dall’interesse arcaico,25 il settore lessicale si presenta naturalmente rigogliosissimo tanto in sede onomaturgica che dialettale.26 5. «Eppure, romanzo storico Nottetempo, casa per casa senza dubbio è. […] Lo è per la fitta trama di allusioni che, come è nella tradizione più pura del romanzo storico, rimandano al presente. Lo è per l’acume con cui lo scrittore ha scelto, anche qui secondo il modello più prezioso del genere, un avvenimento particolarmente inedito e intrigante nel mare degli eventi possibili».27 Questo, press’a poco, il tenore degli interventi critici sull’opera consoliana fin dall’epoca dell’entrata in arte: un approccio sostanzialmente contenutistico che oltre a non rendere competente giustizia alla complessità del dettato, ne suggerisce una lettura parzialissima e fallace, proprio in quanto bloccata all’aspetto meno strutturante dell’atto creativo: la stratificazione dell’elemento concettuale. Si legga un qualsiasi avvio di capitolo: Gravava il silenzio sulle case, ad ogni strada, piano, baglio, il silenzio al meriggio dove piombano sui picchi, le 25 Un catalogo puramente indicativo: alma 920; amistà 10613; antichitate 5120; architettore 2724; bontate 13611; civiltate 5720; dua 282 ; frale 4527; imperocché 2811; littra 4020; marmore 1192 ; mercatore 988 ; nullitate 2611; pintore 5316; sustanza 2819, ecc. 26 «Non c’è motivazione tematica che tenga di fronte a tanta esibizione di sapienza lessicografica» (Vittorio Coletti, op. cit., p. 381). 27 Antonio Franchini, Introduzione a NCC, pp. V-VI.  mura della Rocca corvi, gazze, brulicano sui canali, i limi delle gébbie nugoli d’insetti, la vita chiede tregua al fervore del tempo, all’inclemenza dell’ora, chiede ristoro ai rèfoli, alle brezze, alle fragili ombre delle fronde, delle barche, alle fresche accoglienze delle stanze (13) o si prelevi a caso una delle tante caotiche enumerazioni che stipano il “romanzo”: Pensò a Monreale, a San Martino delle Scale, all’Arcivescovado, allo Steri, all’Archivio Comunale, ad ogni luogo con cameroni, studi, corridoi, anditi tappezzati di stipi traballanti, scaffali di pergamene scure, raggrinzite, di rìsime disciolte, di carte stanche, fiorite di cancri funghi muffe, vergate di lettere sillabe parole decadute, dissolte in nerofumo cenere pulviscolo, agli ipogei, alle cripte, alle gallerie sotterranee, ai dammusi murati, alle catacombe di libri imbalsamati, agli ossari, allo scuro regno róso, all’imperio ascoso dei sorci delle càmole dei tarli degli argentei pesci nel mar delle pagine dei dorsi dei frontespizi dei risguardi. E ancora alle epoche remote, ai luoghi più profondi e obliati, ai libri sepolti, ai ritoli persi sotto macerie, frane, cretti di fango lave sale, aggrumati, pietrificati sotto dune, interminate sabbie di deserti. (31-32) e si dica se una così torrenziale, rapinosa ossessione lirica possa ragionevolmente legittimare l’evocazione d’una categoria quale quella di narrazione storica (dove non solo l’epiteto, ma perfino il sostantivo dovrebbe indurre la più disarmante perplessità) o il ricorso al tòpos – non si saprebbe se vieto o semplicemente inadeguato – dell’allusorio rimando al contemporaneo mercé investigazione di compagini d’epoca. Non che, beninteso, passione teoretica e tensione morale siano estranee a un’operazione che, come NCC, si coagula tematicamente intorno alla furia irrazionalistica originata dall’avvento del fascismo e sue conseguenze. Certo si è che, ancora una volta, la scrittura par muovere non da giudizio, riflessione o progetto, ma da un tripudio calligrafico supercilioso e innaturale che solo la fermentazione erosiva e autoironica d’un Gadda o d’un Pizzuto, qui fatalmente assente, riuscirebbe a riscattare. Vi è un limite varcato il quale il vortice plurilinguistico e registruale, se non fortemente necessitato, si cristallizza in grammatica, smarrendo ragione e valore. Se infatti in SIM, e più in R, l’elaborazione d’un linguaggio sfarzoso e prestigiosissimo traeva motivo e alimento dall’esigenza mimetica suggerita dall’ambientazione rispettivamente otto- e settecentesca, si stenta a credere che in NCC essa sia semanticamente funzionalizzata, e soprattutto poeticamente restituita. Non si dice della sempre invasiva laboriosità fonoprosodica con forti connotati di autoriflessività (numerose le scansioni versali – le più strutturate in endecasillabi e settenarî –, incalcolabili le serie allitterative e le corrispondenze dei tipi più svariati),28 né degli stratagemmi topologici sovente radicalizzati oltre i limiti del leggibile;29 ma di forzature incongrue quali gl’imperfetti arcaici di 3a e 6a persona («il giovine ch’avea chiesto la sua mano» 46, «già l’avean punita» 87); la preposizione articolata arcaicamente sintetica («sale pel cielo il turbine di lucciole» 5, «ritiro pei padroni alla 28 Qualche esempio: «col traffico di merci, passeggeri / speravan d’accansare qualche cosa» 44; «Partiva in compagnia di tre paesani, / ch’erano accanto con i lor parenti» 45; «del balenar di lini, / trascorrere di lumi» 18; «allo scuro regno róso, all’imperio ascoso» 32; «la condizione al presente della gente» 109; «uose pelose di vacca becco porco» 121; «Batte con la pala mazza alza polverazzo» 156; «oltre l’intrico dei vichi » 166. 29 Inversione del soggetto, posposizione latineggiante del possessivo, dislocazione degli epiteti, enclisi pronominale. Ma soprattutto sinchisi: «Finsero, facendo galoppar scrosciando il cavallino giù per la discesa, d’esser partiti» 20; «dalle polle celesti della Rocca cascando, per inferi canali, per alvei di granito trascorrendo, sotto piani strade bagli case chiese conventi gorgogliando» 104, ecc. ricolta dell’uva» 17) o vezzosamente scissa («danzando su la musica segreta d’ascosi pifferi» 16, «– O casa mia, – gemeva – casa de la dolora, patimento, casa de l’innocenza» 37); i voraci accumuli preposizionali («mesceva svelta ai clienti, quattro o cinque fedeli in su quell’ora» 13); le apocopi sillabiche e vocaliche frequentemente indotte da pervicacia metrico-ritmica: «con il fior l’amore, la passion tremenda» 26 (coppia di senarî), «tirandogli le dita dolcemente, gli fe’ capire di tornare giù» 76 (endecasillabi), «Fu quello l’inizio d’una industria, d’un commercio che gli diè guadagno» 131 (decasillabi). Il comparto lessicale gronda di neoformazioni ardite, dialettalismi, e soprattutto arcaismi brutali, spesso incastrati a forza in contesti prossimi al rigetto.30 6. Salmodiante poème en prose in bilico tra inchiesta antropologica e impetuosa esecrazione della civiltà contemporanea rappresentata al culmine del suo decadimento, OO segna un punto di svolta cruciale nella poetica del prosatore siciliano. Già variamente debilitato nei lavori precedenti, il genere romanzo subisce qui una recisa sconfessione31 a pro d’una corrente elegiaca seducente e poderosa (benché non priva delle escandescenze enfatiche e degli eccessi oratorî resi inevitabili dall’impianto moralistico-sentenzioso), che da un lato dissolve la diegesi in illuminazioni schierate sull’asse unificante dell’invettiva e dell’evocazione nostalgica, dall’altro reprime ogni pulsione sperimentale e ambizione alla differenza. Infiammata da una sincera quanto estrema disperazione politica, la scrittura si svincola dalle strette del virtuosismo ludico che rischiava d’ingolfare, se non impietrire, un modo di formare innegabilmente potente e costruttivo; tuttavia (questo il nodo che l’ultimo Consolo sembra deciso a sciogliere definitivamente), l’ipoteca del manierismo e della faticosità inventiva, seppure in via d’esaurimento, non cessa di gravare su una configurazione espressiva riluttante ad armonizzarsi fuori dalle coordinate formali. Declina ma non s’estingue del tutto il vitalismo fonoprosodico,32 sempre meno assistito da ordigni topologici e machiavellismi dell’ordine retorico, mentre all’esondante concertazione di toni e voci sottentra un flusso monolingue liricizz volute sintattiche amplissime, cantilenanti, quasi ipnotiche nel loro incatenarsi ato da oordinativo: e c Va dentro il frastuono, la ressa, l’anidride, il piombo, lo stridore, le trombe, gli insulti, la teppaglia che caracolla, s’accosta, frantuma il vetro, preme alla tempia la canna agghiacciante, scippa, strappa anelli collane, scappa ridendo nella faccia di ceffo fanciullo, scavalca, s’impenna, zigzaga fra spazi invisibili, vola rombando, dispare. Va lungo la nera scogliera, il cobalto del mare, la palma che s’alza dai muri, la buganvillea, l’agave ch sboccia tra i massi, va sopra l’asfalto in cui sfociano tutti gli asfalti che ripidi scendono dalle falde in cemento del monte, da Cìbali Barriera Canalicchio Novalucello, oltrepassa Ognina, la chiesa, il porto d’Ulisse, coperti 30 Abissitade 6418; covrire 616; màrmore 619 ; murifabbro 16713; omai 267 ; spiro 1481 ; vocare 2723, ecc. 31 Sull’argomento ha riflessioni istruttive Giuliano Gramigna, «Il Giorno», 7 luglio 1976. 32 «scioglie il lamento, il pianto. / Solo può dire intanto» 9; «la statua della Madonna, / alta sopra la colonna» 10; «Fuggono quindi da quella violenza, / da quella^incivile convivenza» 18; «ignara del segno, del presagio, / ignara d’ogni evento, / è ferma a quell’oltraggio» 32; «innocente e sapiente, / la sirena silente» 33; «chiusa fra il mare e la sciara, / assoggettata a una natura avara» 47; «Acitrezza. La Trezza. ’A Trizza, la treccia, l’intreccio» 48, ecc. 19 OBLIO II, 5 da cavalcavie rondò svincoli raccordi motel palazzi – urlano ai margini venditori di pesci, di molluschi di nafta , oltrepassa la rupe e il castello di lava a picco sul mare, giunge al luogo dello stupro (46-47) nte lente i à nte e di parola : spia clamante d’un llarme non ancora completamente scongiurato. * * * CONIAZIONI ORIGINALI o, per un totale sizione occupano un ruolo più che consistente. Si a dalle mere giustapposizioni e grafie sintetiche: ni in brache» e, NCC 14623: «vorticare degli occhi, delle penneluce, dei colori iridati delle ali». ‘Piuma ecchiapregna, FA 3 : «la corriera, la v.». ‘(A forma di) vecchia gravida’ gli incroci più o meno trasparentemente congegnati: monia per fare, infilando o incastronando con l’oro e – All’intensità del nucleo tematico ispiratore («Un viaggio del ritorno in Sicilia, Itaca perduta che diventa metafora dell’Italia»)33 si deve invece l’ancor nutrito continge di arcaismi e poeticismi nell’ordine delle parole, per la prima volta necessitati da cogenti istanze sentimentali. Inversione del soggetto («Stese la regina il drappo rosso» 9, «Va lo smarrito marinaio» 50); iperbato («Il tono scarno e grave, ermetico e do vorrebbe avere d’Ungaretti» 84, «All’angelo ripensò del suo Riposo» 88); legato sostantivo-possessivo-aggettivo («nel corpo suo sereno» 86); dislocazione degli epitet («secco paese povero e obliato» 78, «solitaria villa decaduta» 107); chiasmi: «la citt s’allontana, s’allontana l’isola» 10, «il cuore s’ingrossava, si smorzava il fiato» 31. Cala vertiginosamente, sin quasi ad annullarsi, l’attenzione rivolta al livello fonetico.34 Sintomatica, quanto al lessico, la contrazione dell’attività onomaturgica non disgiunta da un’altrettanto drastica rarefazione del quoziente dialettale, mentre permane inge il sempre più innaturale ricorso a varianti arcaich 35 a Lo scrutinio ha rilevato 57 neologismi presumibilmente attribuibili all’estro consolian di 67 occorrenze così distribuite: 12 in FA, 14 in SIM, 30 in R, 8 in NCC e 3 in OO. Gli accenti, qui e nella sezione dedicata ai Dialettalismi, sono quelli apposti dall’Autore. Una prima classificazione tipologica consente di rilevare l’estrema elementarità delle procedure onomaturgiche, tra cui l’univerbazione e la compo v capochino, SIM 8630: «uomini capochi chivalà, NCC 1626 : «urla comandi c.» gastrosegato, SIM 11327: «la stimma del tuo g., la tacca per la fuga della bile». Gastro (non come primo elemento di composti, ma direttamente dal gr. gastḗr-trós ‘stomaco’) + part. pass. di segare pennaluc lucente’ 7 v a agrimogno, FA 734 : «nespole agrimogne». Agro + asprigno sul modello di acri gargarella, FA 994 : «il rumore dello sguazzo, la g.». Garganella + gargarozzo incastronare, R 1321 : «sciortinavano gli acini o cocci 33 Quarta di copertina. 34 Si registra qualche rarissima apocope vocalica, esclusivamente in posizione preconsonantica: «Seguivan le bambine» 24; «ulular di cani, strider d’uccelli» 115; «all’apparir delle persone» 148. 35 Màcula 8627; murifabbro 692 ; murmure 5017; ordegno 13015; scerpato 8513; umidore 11029; vanella 8822, ecc. 20 OBLIO II, 5 con l’argento, paternostri». Incastonare + incastrare liconario, SIM 1052 : «frate l.». Licantropo + lupunariu o lupunaru (sic.) di egual significato riballo, R 388 : «anfore oriballi». Oro + ariballo ‘vaso greco arcaico’ lle combinazioni di verbo e sostantivo: parginchiostro, FA 10523: «– […] lo s. non è di quella razza». ‘Scrittorucolo’, ‘imbrattacarte’ uanto alla formazione delle parole, mentre ricorrono due soli casi di verbi deaggettivali: fervorare, R 97 : «l’aere sfervora». Dal raro sfervorato ‘che ha perso il fervore’ i registra un folto gruppo di denominali, deverbali – la più parte a suffisso zero – e parasintetici: Lipari il segretario con l’a. di suo padre». Deverbale a suff. zero IM 676 : «s. d’occhi verso l’alto». Deverbale da stralunare ‘strabuzzare’ + suff. -ìo di ramischie». Deverbale a suff. zero dall’arc. tramischiare omboneggiando». Denominale da trombone ‘antica arma da oco a canna corta dalla bocca svasata’ logico tradizionalmente più roduttivo nell’italiano letterario: quello delle forme pre- e suffissali: ontrofascista, FA 1531: «– […] fetente, ch’era c.». Sul modello di controrivoluzionario battuto, R 9614: «– […] strade scognite, imbattute». Da battuto ‘percorso’. ‘Inesplorato’ ntinuativo: tralunìo, cit. opranatura, R 652 : «non d’elementi di natura ma di s.». Sul modello di soprannaturale ltrapassato, R 114 : «statue di cittate ultrapassate» o a spargeveleno, FA 1303 : «– Porco, vipera schifosa, s.!». ‘Seminatore di zizzania’ s Q sciortinare, R 13129 (cfr. incastronare). Dal sic. sciurtiatu ‘assortito’ s s affoco, FA 5513: «faccia d’a.». Deverbale a suff. zero dal sic. affucari ‘uccidere togliendo il respiro’ attizzo, FA 1532: «– […] lo mandò a dal sic. attizzari ‘istigare’, ‘aizzare’ frastuonare, R 5113: «il chiasso che frastuona». Denominale da frastuono ingozzo, FA 10310: «i. di zuccheri e di grassi». Deverbale a suff. zero da ingozzare spiego, SIM 9316: «ali e coda a s. di ventaglio». Deverbale a suff. zero da spiegare ‘distendere’ stralunìo, S continuità tramischio, R 4120: «pietre mischie e t ‘frammischiare’, intensivo di mischio tromboneggiare, R 1053 : «verso il ciel tr fu Ma non è certo un caso che il primato numerico spetti al comparto neo p contro-: c in- negativo: im -ìo intensivo-co s sopra-: s ultra- (= tra-): u -ame collettivo: asciuttame, R 1277 : «a., vino, cenere di soda». ‘Pesce essiccato’ uddano, FA 547 : «– […] punto debole del popolo s.». Da sud. ‘Meridionale’ ista a gia’ avagliante, R 11824: «bravi travaglianti». Dal sic. ṭṛavagghïari ‘lavorare’ enisolare, R 13111: «città p.». Variante di peninsulare tefanaro, NCC 15716: «la giara stefanara […] suona a ogni tocco». ‘Di S. Stefano di Camastra’ asato, R 6811: «un n. fischio». Lo stesso che nasale torture, angeliche muffoliche cuffiesche». Da cuffia del silenzio ‘antico trumento di tortura’ uffolico, SIM 1610 (cfr. cuffiesco). Dal reg. muffole ‘manette’ Isaac Newton ettorino, R 13214: «degli orecchi, del canale p.». Lo stesso che pettorale isfattivo, R 7813: «dolcemente d.». Da disfatto secondo il rapporto di distrutto a distruttivo nicola, R 10919: «anatre, fenicole, calandre». Da fenice o fenic(ottero) , dalle i per tenerezza’. ‘Sdolcinato’, ‘lezioso’ ermoso, SIM 613 : «occhio tondo v.». Da verme era non tollera nel suo seno il r.» . Da stroppio ‘storpio’ midume, SIM 7536: «un tondo nero d’u.» -ano d’appartenenza: s -ante di mestiere e condizione: chitarrante, OO 332 : «avanza […] in mezzo ai chitarranti». Lo stesso che chitarr paonante, R 4311: «spavaldo e p.». Dal sic. paùni ‘p vone’. ‘Che si pavoneg tr -are di relazione: p -aro d’appartenenza: s -ato (=-ale): n -esco derivativo: cuffiesco, SIM 1610: « s -ico d’appartenenza: m -ino alterativo e derivativo: newtoncino, R 14527: «promettente, il n.». Dal cognome del fisico inglese p -ivo di capacità, disposizione: d -olo alterativo: fe -oso di caratterizzazione e abbondanza: gilepposo, FA 10223: «vino g.». Dal sic. ggilippusu. Lo stesso che giulebboso ‘dolciastro’ sdillinchioso, R 1524 : «signore sdillinchiose»; NCC 4927: «– Vai, vai dalle troie di marmo sdillinchiose». Dal sic. sdillinchiari ‘commuovers v -ume collettivo-spregiativo: ribaldume, SIM 11114: «L’Italia Una e Lib sbirrume, NCC 16927: «– […] tutto lo s.» stroppiume, OO 8627: «s., màcule, lordure» u  Se la compagine prevalentemente mimetica del parlato popolare non può non limitare il ricorso alle ngue classiche e moderne: , OO 3323: «la curòtrofa, la madre possente». Dal gr. kourotróphos ‘che nutre, alleva figli, a cui ERI, 1991, pp. 51-52) arfumo, NCC 2516: «il p. suadente». Adatt. del fr. parfum ‘profumo’ onché l’utilizzo di basi arcaiche: a stelle di j.»; R 1359 : «con buchè di rose e di j. in mano». Dall’ant. ginia e pifània di Palermo». Dall’ant. (e dial.) pifanìa ‘epifania’, on accentazione greca (epipháneia) per nui»; NCC 2512: «La pomelia s.». Comp. dell’ant. sur ‘sopra’ e tutto rattutto’ amischio, cit. ltre ai itati affoco, attizzo, gilepposo, liconario, nascare, sciortinare, sdillinchioso e travagliante: o che trafficavano alla macina al rchio alla lumera al fosso». Dal cal. scudillari ‘rompere la schiena’ onclude la rassegna un drappello di neologismi consistenti in minime variazioni morfologiche: ’intestardo a scrivere»; SIM 7614: «– […] m’intestardo a dimorare qua». 1275 : «in magna q.». O da quantità sul modello di cittate e sim. o direttamente dal lat. pallido o s. in cui si presentava questa pietra». Da squallido (ad evitare irginio, R 2420: occhio tondo v.». ‘Virgineo’

DIALETTALISMI
lie , e li curòtrofo giovani’ eurialo, SIM 1033: «Siracusa bianca, euriala e petrosa». Così l’Autore: «Eu, rao, als: luogo d si vede bene il mare» (V. Consolo, La Sicilia passeggiata, Torino, Nuova lecana, R 389 : «coppe pissidi lecane». Dal gr. lēkánē ‘vassoio’, ‘catino’ p n jasmino, SIM 11910: «le spalle iàsemin o iasmin ‘gelsomino’ pifànio, R 2420: «la visione prima, vir c surtutto, R 401 : «– […] s. (fr. surtout). ‘Sop tr il contingente delle invenzioni lessicali riconducibili al dialetto è proporzionalmente notevole. O c scudilliere, NCC 10416: «gli scudillieri bisunti e incappucciati di sacc to C ammenciare, R 2616: «ricordo […] che in un istante s’ammencia». Lo stesso che ammencire intestardarsi, FA 10519: «m Lo stesso che intestardirsi quantitate, R quantitatem realitate, R 497 : «dalla finzione del teatro nella r. della vita». Cfr. quantitate squallo, R 1324 : «nel rosso omoteleuto con «pallido») v Prescindendo dalle voci contenute negli inserti dialogici interamente dialettali, il glossario accog 184 lemmi per un totale di 254 frequenze (54 in FA, 78 in SIM, 48 in R, 59 in NCC, 15 in OO) precisamente: 1 calabresismo e 183 sicilianismi, di cui 59 non sottoposti ad alcuna modifica (segnalati dalla dicitura «sic.») e 124 («dal sic.») foneticamente italianizzati secondo criterî glottotecnici non sempre coerenti e persuasivi, gravando sul dettato l’ipoteca d’un impetuoso 23 OBLIO II, 5 estremismo barocco. Cui saranno da attribuire sia le oscillazioni nel regime dei segnaccenti (càs cascia, cianciàna / cianciana, gèbbia / gébbia / gebbia, nutrìco / nutrico, sipàla / sipala, traz trazzera, viòlo / violo) sia, soprattutto, le flagranti discordanze procedurali in materia di adattamento: si noterà, ad esempio, come l’assimilazione progressiva tipica delle parlate centromeridionali sia sottoposta a normalizzazione in blundo (sic. bblunnu) e smandare (sic. smannari), ma non in abbanniare, banneggiare (rispettivamente dal sic. bbannïari e abbannïari, di identico significato), ciònnolo (sic. ciùnnuli); e come il suffisso meridionale intensivo-continuati -ïari sia regolarmente vòlto in -eggiare nel caso di banneggiare, ma resti pressoché invariato in cia / zèra / vo bbanniare, fanghiare, lampiare, ecc., a testimoniare la vocazione mimetica della lingua consoliana. ri, speravan d’a. qualche cosa». Dal sic. estare’, ‘mollare’. ratu ‘stantio’. ‘Putrefatto’. a. e la buffetta»; armuarro, NCC 12025: «letto comò a.». Dal sic. armuaru o ato’. u ‘lontano’. va ferma per lungo tempo provvisa’. co’. occiola’. nelle, bagli e piani»; OO 13412: «i bagli, le torri merlate». Dal sic. bagghiu somino, b. e viola»; NCC 1267 : «rose bàlichi giaggioli». nneggiava un uomo con la carrettella». Dal sic. bbannïari ‘gettare il aresco’, detto di pecora o montone. ‘abbeveratoio’. za visiera’. a abbanniare, SIM 11412: «il banditore abbanniò». Dal sic. abbannïari ‘gettare il bando’. accalarsi, FA 1326 : «– Chi sta in faccia al mare, prima o poi si deve a., anche col pesce più meschino»; NCC 1429: «La regina col re solo s’accala». Dal sic. accalàrisi ‘piegarsi’. accansare, NCC 447 : «col traffico di merci, passegge accanzari ‘acquistare’, ‘ottenere’, ‘mettere da parte’. acceppare, FA 5316: «Il sorvegliante glien’acceppò una». Dal sic. accippari ‘ass accianza, R 1517: «quell’a. d’oro»; NCC 7423: «una mala a.». Sic. ‘Occasione’. addimorato, SIM 10630: «morti addimorati». Dal sic. addimu anciova, SIM 2723: «sàuri sgombri anciove». Sic. ‘Acciuga’. angarioso, OO 9121: «la soldataglia prepotente e angariosa». Dal sic. angariusu ‘soverchiatore’. armuaro, FA 568 : «l’ armuarru ‘armadio’. arraggiato, SIM 10620: «corvi […] arraggiati in cielo a volteggiare». Dal sic. arraggiatu ‘arrabbi arrasso, FA 1101 : «– […] a. di qua»; R 988 : «a. dalla Milano attiva». Dal sic. arrass arrere, R 6419: «– […] l’ereditò dal padre suo, e così a.». Dal sic. arreri ‘indietro’. attassare, FA 3633: «Il muro era gelato, mi attassava»; NCC 6021: «resta come attassata». Dal sic. attassari ‘gelare’ ‘far agghiacciare il sangue’. attasso, NCC 428 : «nell’a. del cuore». Dal cal. attassu ‘forte paura im babbalèo, SIM 946 : «b., mammolino». Dal sic. bbabbalèu ‘scioc babbaluci, SIM 2913: «asparagi finocchi b.». Sic. ‘Chi babbìa, FA 378 : «pazzia, se non b.». Sic. ‘Stupidità’. baccaglio, NCC 1426: «frasi a parabola, a b.». Dal sic. bbaccagghiu ‘gergo furbesco’. baglio, SIM 3231: «va ‘cortile di una casa’. bajettone, R 12714: «saja di Bologna, b. d’Inghilterra». Dal sic. baiettuni ‘panno da lutto’. bàlico, SIM 6017: «leandro e b.»; R 94 : «gel Dal sic. bbàlicu (o bbarcu) ‘violacciocca’. banneggiare, FA 1147 : «ba bando’ (cfr. abbanniare). barbarisco, R 12712: «lana barbarisca». Dal sic. bbarbariscu ‘barb baviolo, FA 472 : «b. di merletto». Dal sic. bbaviuòlu ‘bavaglino’. beveratura, NCC 10621: «Oltre la b. di porta di Terra». Dal sic. bbiviratura birritta, SIM 894 : «la b. calcata». Sic. ‘Copricapo di stoffa sen blundo, SIM 7036: «testa blunda». Dal sic. bblunnu ‘biondo’. brogna, FA 3315: «suonavano le brogne a tutto fiato»; R 1421 : «suonò la b.». Sic. ‘Buccina’. buatta, FA 5429: «concerto di buatte e di gavette». Sic. ‘Scatola di latta per conserve alimentari’. buffetta, FA 4134: «preparava la b.»; SIM 1315: «appoggiò le braccia sopra la b.»; R 6326: «sopra ’na b. dispose del formaggio»; NCC 1313: «i litri e le gazzose alle buffette». Sic. ‘Tavola da pranzo’, lia) ‘la carne del tonno vicina all’addome o alla lisca centrale, di colore scuro …] e ordinò agli altri di farsi di lato». Dal sic. botti barilotti»; NCC 1047 : «i cafìsi di vergine». Dal sic. cafìsu etteratura, traduzione. 9). sic. a cangiu ‘in luogo di’. 282 : «l’altri dua di fora, uno a cavallo come c.». Dal sic. capurrètina ‘guida’, ino’. ‘Panno cremisi’. acellaio’. ti, a scossoni della c.». Sic. dio a muro’. re’. io di tessere che invadeva il c. dentro la fortezza del suo Duomo». Sic. (e ‘tavolo rustico da cucina’. burnìa, SIM 318: «unguentarî alberelli scatole burnìe». Sic. ‘Vaso di terracotta’. buzzonaglia, SIM 316 : «– […] ficazza, lattume e b.». Dal sic. bbuzzunagghia (bbuzzinagghja, bbusunagghja, bbusunàg e qualità poco pregiata’. cacocciola, FA 4414: «fece uno che pareva c. [ cacòcciula ‘carciofo’; qui ‘capobanda’ (fig.). cafìso, SIM 10532: «coffe cafìsi ‘misura da olio’, ‘brocchetta’. calacàusi, SIM 385 : «– […] un imbecille o c.». Sic. ‘Calabrache’. calasìa, SIM 948 : «– […] presciutto tesoro c.». Sic. ‘Bellezza’. «Un giorno mi ha telefonato un dialettologo dell’Università di Catania e mi ha chiesto dove avessi preso la parola calasìa che nei vocabolari siciliani non esiste. Gli ho risposto: è semplice, viene dal greco kalòs che vuol dire bello. Calasìa significa bellezza, come si dice nella mia zona che è greco-bizantina» (V. Consolo, intervista con Sergio Buonadonna, «Repubblica», 12 giugno 2011). Il dialettologo era S. C. Trovato, che così nota: «Si tratta sicuramente di una parola del lessico familiare dello scrittore, che non ha riscontri lessicografici nel siciliano, né, in quanto non improbabile grecismo (> kalós + suff., probabilmente sul modello di gherousía), nelle parlate della vicina Calabria» (Italiano regionale, l Pirandello, D’Arrigo, Consolo, Occhiato, Enna, Euno Edizioni, 2011, p. 31 càlia, NCC 12717: «andando per la c., per i gelati». Sic. ‘Ceci abbrustoliti’. cangio (a), FA 2215: «– […] la maestra a c. dell’avvocato». Dal caniglia, SIM 5912: «cenere e c.». Dal sic. canigghia ‘crusca’. caporedina, R ‘mulattiere’. carbàno, SIM 421 : «– Carbàni e montanari!». Dal sic. carbànu ‘zotico’. carcarazza, SIM 1073 : «corvi e carcarazze». Sic. ‘Gazza’, ‘cornacchia’. carmiscìna, R 12712: «raso di Firenze, c., orbàci». Dal sic. carmuscinu ‘chermis carnezziere, SIM 2910: «lo c., il pescivendolo». Dal sic. carnizzèri ‘m carruggio, OO 7214: «carruggi, cortili». Dal sic. carruggiu ‘vicolo’. càscia, SIM 10530: «ossa càscie crozze»; cascia, R 1014: «piansi a singul ‘Cassa da morto’ nel primo caso, ‘petto’ (‘cassa toracica’) nel secondo. casèna, R 6415: «– Qua, per intanto, nella mia c.». Sic. ‘Piccolo arma cassariota, R 1023: «magàra, cassariota». Sic. ‘Donna di malaffa catanonno, NCC 4228: «Saliba la catanonna». Sic. ‘Bisnonno’. catarratto, R 1205 : «vino d’inzòlia e c.». Dal sic. catarrattu ‘uva da mosto’. cato, FA 325: «correvo col c. alla fontana»; SIM 11012: «cati e lemmi»; R 321 : «nel concavo del c.»; NCC 383 : «l’immenso d panmerid.). ‘Secchio’. catoio, FA 6823: «la fila di catoi e magazzeni»; SIM 1064 : «pozzo, sarcofago o c.»; NCC 519: «spenti 25 OBLIO II, 5 catoi melanconici»; OO 918: «dammusi, catoi murati». Dal sic. catuju o catoju ‘stanza sotterranea o grottesco, logorò le lettere». 127: «si mutavano in carbone, c.». Dal sic. cinisa . ciràulu ‘imbroglione’. r di : «col suono sordo delle lor cianciàne»; NCC 1711: «tintinnar di a pesca’. ‘rana’. arùni ‘tazzone’. ie sotterranee, ai dammusi ell’impasto. Fanghìa principiando a caso». Dal racotta’. fardali ‘grembiale’. Dal sic. fezzaru a e ssa ad asciugare in ambiente arieggiato» (http://www.divinocibo.it/cibo/301/ficazza-dito!»; NCC 12918: «– Che culo, ’sto g., ’sto CC »; gèbbia, OO 2421: «Tra sènie e gèbbie». Sic. ‘Cisterna per conservare terrena’, ‘stambugio’. catùso, SIM 11811: «pioggia di secoli che, cadendo a perpendicolo da c. Dal sic. catùsu ‘grondaia’, ‘canaletta per lo sfogo delle acque piovane’. cenisa, R 7229: «il crine sciolto o di c. sparso»; OO 4 ‘carbonella’ (cfr. il nap. cenisa ‘cenere’). ‘Cenere’. ceraolo, R 1024: «quella ceraola, quella vecchia bagascia». Dal sic chianca, NCC 10722: «forni, chianche, saloni». Sic. ‘Macelleria’. cianciana, FA 982 : «parte con un balzo tra lo scroscio di cianciane»; SIM 8621: «allegro tintinna ciancianelle»; cianciàna, R 168 ciancianelle». Sic. ‘Sonaglio’. cianciòlo, SIM 7913: «stendevano il c. sulla ghiaia». Dal sic. cianciuòlu ‘rete d ciarana, FA 11432: «i granchi e le ciarane». Dal sic. ciranna o cirana cicarone, SIM 11918: «scifi e cicaroni». Dal sic. cic cinìsa, SIM 10532: «c., bragia e tizzi». Cfr. cenisa. cinisia, FA 13133: «la brace accesa sotto la c.». Cfr. cenisa. ciònnolo, FA 13130: «– Ciònnoli e muletti». Dal sic. ciùnnuli ‘ornamenti’. cisca, R 6325: «le cische con il latte». Dal sic. çisca ‘secchia da mungere’. criato, SIM 826: «il c. era appena giunto». Dal sic. criatu ‘domestico’, ‘inserviente’. crozza, FA 11514: «la c. bianca e gli ossi in croce»; SIM 10531: cfr. càscia. Sic. ‘Teschio’. dammuso, FA 732 : «La conca s’appende nel d.»; NCC 321 : «alle galler murati»; OO 918: cfr. catoio. Dal sic. dammùsu ‘stanza a pianterreno’. fanghiare, NCC 1568 : «È il momento dell’acqua e d sic. fanghïari ‘vangare’. ‘Mescolare con una pala’. fangotto, NCC 15523: «Dal fango nasce ogni f.». Dal sic. fangottu ‘piatto di ter fanniente (don), NCC 1676 : «– sti don f.». Dal sic. don fannenti ‘fannullone’. fardale, FA 9226: «le mani […] nascoste nel f.». Dal sic. fezza, SIM 10633: «fezze, sughi, chiazze». Sic. ‘Feccia’. fezzaro, NCC 1049 : «l’olio d’inferno che prendevano i fezzari pel sapone». ‘raccoglitore di feccia d’olio per farne sapone o combustibile da lampada’. ficazza, SIM 315 : cfr. buzzonaglia. Sic. «Insaccato di carne di tonno tritata, salata e fortemente pepata’ (S. C. Trovato, Lessico settoriale, regionale e traduzione. A proposito del «Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio» di Vincenzo Consolo, Atti del Convegno su L’Italia dei dialetti, a cura di Gianna Marcato, Sappada\Plodn, 27 giugno-1 luglio 2007, Padova, Unipress, 2008, pp. 403-411). «La ficazza viene preparata con la parte del tonno che, dopo la sfilettatura, resta attaccata alla lisca. Separata con cura, l carne del tonno viene poi macinata e condita con sale e pepe, ed insaccata nel budello, proprio com un classico salame di carne. Dopo una pressatura che dura circa tre settimane, la ficazza di tonno viene me tonno/). frascarolo, NCC 1576 : «Giunge il f. dai boschi». Dal sic. frascarolu ‘chi raccoglie legna’. garruso, SIM 9412: «– Garrusello e figlio di g. allettera fascista!». Dal sic. garrùsu ‘pederasta’, ‘mascalzone’. gebbia, FA 2819: «Andammo fino alla g.»; R 8819: «la grande g. ove natavano pesci»; gébbia, N 134 : «i limi delle gébbie 26  l’acqua d’irrigazione’. gerbo, SIM 9314: «fiori gialli del ficodindia g.». Dal sic. gerbu ‘acerbo’, ‘non maturo’. 127: «le giummare dello Zingaro, gli eucalipti». Sic. ‘Foglia di cerfreglione’, ‘palma tipatico’. «la g. tonda smozzicata»; NCC 604: «guastelle di pane». Dal sic. guastedda uscolò per tutto il corpo». Dal sic. ammusculari o mmusculari Peppe, ostia, mi pare che qua l’i. ci pigliammo!». Dal sic. mprusatura a Piluchera con cui s’era intrezzato fortemente». ‘tribolare’. rtara». Dal sic. lemmu ‘catino’, ‘secchio’, ‘vaso di are’, ‘allegare’, ‘passare dallo stato di o, a il l.». Dal sic. lupunariu ‘licantropo’. cotta smaltata’. . ana ‘dolce di «mascarata di fuoco e di oro». Dal sic. mascaratu ‘persona vestita in maschera tasi corre impazzita»; R 1229: «la m. poi in quel budello». Dal gilecco, NCC 5818: «il g. di fustagno». Dal sic. ggileccu ‘panciotto’. giummara, R 10116: «il seccume di spighe e di giummare»; NCC 722 : «verde di ficodindia g. euforbia»; OO 4 nana’, ‘agave’. grevio, R 4111: «il prete g., untuoso». Dal sic. greviu ‘grave’, ‘pesante’, ‘an guaiana, SIM 9215: «cogliere la g. della fava». Dal sic. vaiana ‘baccello’. guastella, SIM 2826: ‘specie di focaccia’. guglielma, FA 1431: «tirò fuori il pettinino e si rifece la g.». Sic. ‘Ciuffo’. immuscolarsi, NCC 776 : «s’imm ‘aggrovigliarsi’, ‘attorcigliarsi’. improsatura, FA 4019: «– Don ‘bidone’, ‘inganno’, ‘raggiro’. intinagliare, R 13129: «perciavano, intinagliavano». Dal sic. ntinagghiari ‘attanagliare’. intrezzarsi, NCC 13513: «Petro fumava nel letto dell Dal sic. ntrizzari ‘intrecciare’, ‘legare strettamente’. jisso, SIM 11836: «le pareti […] levigate a malta, j.». Dal sic. jissu ‘gesso’. lampiare, FA 7927: «lampiò un orologio d’oro». Dal sic. lampïari ‘lampeggiare’, ‘scintillare’. làstima, SIM 4234: «– Scrive in particolare delle làstime e delle sofferenze». Sic. ‘Lamento’. lastimare, SIM 884 : «– Animo, Sirna, finimmo il l.!». Dal sic. lastimari ‘lamentarsi’, lattume, SIM 316 : cfr. buzzonaglia. Dal sic. lattumi ‘ghiandola seminale del tonno’. lemmo, FA 639 : «i piatti dentro il l.»; SIM 932: «piatti lemmi e mafaràte»; R 778 : «– […] un l. pieno d’acqua»; NCC 15524: «mafàra l. bòmbolo qua terracotta smaltata a forma di tronco di cono’. liare, R 913: «Lia che m’ha liato la vita». Dal sic. lïari ‘matur fiore a quello di frutto’; ma anche denominale da (Rosa)lia. lippo, R 919: «l. dell’alma mia»; OO 9222: «grommi, lippi». Dal sic. lippu ‘sporcizia’, ‘untume’. luponario, FA 6413: «irruppe nella stanza come un l.»; R 1915: «balzai all’impiedi come un ossess un l.»; NCC 71 : «Di là della tonnara muoveva or mafàra, NCC 15524: cfr. lemmo. Sic. ‘Tappo’. mafaràta, SIM 932: cfr. lemmo. Sic. ‘Grande piatto concavo di terra magàra, R 1023: cfr. cassarioto. Sic. ‘Megera’, ‘donna immorale’. malannata, FA 3227: «scampati a sette malannate». Sic. ‘Anno di carestia, di cattivo raccolto’. male catubbo, NCC 1011: «– […] ti salvi dal male mio c.». Dal sic. mali catubbu ‘mal caduco’. marranzano, SIM 8621: «basso mormorar di marranzani». Dal sic. marranzanu ‘scacciapensieri’ martorana (pasta), R 1012: «pasta m. fatta carne». Dal sic. pasta (o frutta) martur mandorla in forma di frutta varia, confezionato specialmente nel mese d’ottobre’. mascarato, FA 907 : con colori vistosi’. mascata, FA 112 : «pacche e mascate». Sic. ‘Schiaffo’. massacanaglia, FA 432: «La m. dei bas 27  sic. mazzacanàgghia ‘orda’, ‘branco’. matre, FA 798 : «patre e m.»; R 1421: «e la matrazza a dire». Dal sic. maṭṛi ‘madre’. Mammella’. llo mozzo’. e dei nipoti’. pet ; nutrico, NCC 8723: «come un n. che non si oglitori correvano col p.»; NCC 10316: «mettere nel p. le giarraffe». Sic. (e era’. al sic. pasturìa ‘pane di Pasqua con uova sode’. perciato dalle stelle»; OO 8821: «La Mastra Rua era perciata da CC 1414: «la vera p., da sempre di casa in casa a fare crocchie». Sic. ‘Parrucchiera a ] una saccoccia di rena asciutta dalla p.»; SIM 795 : «E s’udivano i rumori sulla a a la p.»; SIM 1311: «fermarsi a la p.»; NCC 1364 : «davanti alla p.». Dal sic. FA 731 : «Primavera prescialora che non lascia di dire è cominciata». Dal sic. prescialòru che’. ola brocca’. 1722: «– […] marmi policromi, a mischio, r. e tramischio». Dal sic. rrabbiscu fiore a r. sopra l’albero». Dal sic. a rringu ‘a occhio’. ‘Senza l’aiuto ddi rrizza menna, FA 531: «gonfiano le menne». Sic. (e panmerid.). ‘ mèusa, R 1511: «mèuse, arrosti di stigliole». Sic. ‘Milza’. mozzone, SIM 10736: «quartarella o m.». Dal sic. muzzuni ‘brocca di terracotta dal co nipotanza, SIM 728 : «figlioli e nipotanze». Dal sic. niputanza ‘l’insiem nascare, SIM 9321: «nascando in aria». Dal sic. naschïari ‘annusare’. nucàtolo, SIM 197 : «biscotti […], nucàtoli». Dal sic. nucàtulu ‘dolce natalizio’. nutrìco, SIM 831: «– […] attaccato al to come un n.?» stacca dal latte nella poppa». Dal sic. nuṭṛìcu ‘lattante’. ortilizio, SIM 1526: «produzioni ortilizie». Dal sic. ortilìzziu o ortalìzziu ‘coltura ortiva’. panaro, FA 13630: «i c panmerid.). ‘Paniere’. panzéra, FA 9434: «una larga cintura di cuoio come una p.». Sic. (e panmerid.). ‘Panc paràngolo, SIM 7913: «dipanavano il p.». Dal sic. paràngulu ‘attrezzo per la pesca’. paranzo, R 12417: «il carraio ci procurò un p.». Dal sic. paranzu ‘tipo di imbarcazione’. pastorìa, FA 1063 : «un mostacciolo, poi na p.». D patre, FA 798 : cfr. matre. Dal sic. paṭṛi ‘padre’. perciare, SIM 8011: «l’orecchino di metallo che gli perciava il lobo»; R 13129: «polivano, perciavano»; NCC 13922: «il cielo rocchi». Dal sic. pirciari ‘forare’. piluchera, N domicilio’. pirrera, NCC 1564 : «Va nella p., nei cunicoli». Sic. ‘Cava’, ‘pietraia’. plaia, FA 2934: «– [… p.». Sic. ‘Spiaggia’. portiniere, FA 10719: «suora portiniera». Dal sic. purtinèri ‘portiere’, ‘guardiano’. potìa, FA 1335 : «la bevut putìa ‘osteria’. prescialoro, ‘frettoloso’. puranco, R 2921: «p. la famiglia di Fauno […] si è pietrificata». Dal sic. puranchi ‘an quartara, SIM 10736: cfr. mozzone; NCC 15524: cfr. lemmo. Sic. ‘Picc ràbato, OO 1294 : «di mercati, di ràbati». Dal sic. ràbbatu ‘sobborgo’. rabisco, SIM ‘arabesco’. ràiso, SIM 1034: «Palermo rossa, ràisa, palmosa». Dal sic. rràisi ‘capo, chi comanda, dirige o guida’. ringo (a), FA 7512: «si compra il di strumenti di misura appositi’. rizza, SIM 3234: «riparare rizzelle e nasse». Sic. ‘Rete da pesca’. rizzo, FA 727: «fanno la pelle rizza»; SIM 3627: «Nel porto fatto r. per il vento». Dal sic. pe ‘pelle d’oca’ nel primo caso; ‘increspato’ nel secondo (in riferimento all’acqua del porto). 28 ròtola, R 693 : «rompendo la cagliata con la r.»; NCC 7111: «tra cazza r. fiscelle». Dal sic. rròtula cagliata durante la 0510: «e tiravano innanti a santioni». : «Nell tro l’altro». Sic. (e panmerid.). ‘Piccone’, cutulari . S.»; OO 2421: cfr. gèbbia. 2 e sipale». Sic. e’, solitudine’. av . tabbùtu ‘cassa un barbecue’. ‘bastone con all’estremità inferiore un dischetto di legno, usato per frantumare la lavorazione del formaggio’. 29 rua, R 133 : «passeggiare nella r.». Sic. rua ‘vicolo nel paese, rione, vicinato’. santiare, SIM 8726: «sputi, lazzi, turco s.». Dal sic. santïari ‘bestemmiare’. santione, FA 348 : «Ma era un’abitudine, come i santioni»; SIM 1 Dal sic. santiuni ‘bestemmia’. 35 sardisco, SIM 66 : «ragli di s.». Dal sic. sardiscu ‘asino sardo’. 9 scapozzatore, OO 138 : «scapozzatori di gamberi». Dal sic. scapuzzaturi ‘chi leva la testa ai pesci’. scattìo, FA 12429 o s. del caldo delle due». Dal sic. scattìu ‘l’ora più assolata’. scecco, SIM 10433: «scecchi in groppa»; R 1319: «– […] carico come uno s. di Pantelleria». Dal sic. sceccu ‘asino’. sciamarra, SIM 854 : «dava forte con la sua s., un colpo die ‘vanga’. 17 sciarmère, R 53 : «sciarmèri e questuanti». Sic. ‘Mago’. sciume, R 472 : «sciumi trasparenti». Dal sic. çiumi ‘fiume’. scognito, R 9614: «– […] strade scognite, imbattute»; NCC 15514: «Altra gente scognita». Dal sic. scògnitu ‘sconosciuto’. scotolare, NCC 571 : «un colpo secco di mortaro che scotolò la terra». Dal sic. (e panmerid.) s ‘scuotere’. scrèpia, R 13717: «roselline della s.»; NCC 1205 : «la s. e la menta». Sic. ‘Fior di cera (pianta rampicante delle Asclepiadacee)’. sènia, SIM 8528: «cigolar di secchia della s.»; NCC 3825: «Terra. Pietra Sic. ‘Specie di noria’. sgrigna, FA 56 0 : «tirava sgrigne soffocate». Sic. ‘Ghigno’, ‘ringhio’. sipàla, SIM 9314: «faceva capolino una s.»; sipala, NCC 4624: «il muro la torre l ‘Siepe’. smandare, FA 617: «smandò quei due a casa». Dal sic. smannari ‘allontanare’. smorfiarsi, FA 10421: «Smorfiandosi tutta sulle scarpe alte». Dal sic. smurfïàrisi ‘fare smorfi ‘gongolare’, ‘fare lo smorfioso’. 24 solità, SIM 67 : «– S. e privazioni gli hanno fottuto la ragione». Dal sic. sulità ‘ 1 sosizza, R 95 : «sosizze, fellata, soppressata». Sic. ‘Salsiccia’. 7 spanto, FA 98 : «non c’era s. poi che s’affacciava». Dal sic. spantu ‘spavento’. 27 spetittato, SIM 43 : «s., non ha voglia di niente». Dal sic. spitittàtu ‘inappetente’. sticchio, SIM 5910: «per paura di s. romito e santo». Dal sic. stìcchiu ‘vulva’. stracangiare, FA 222 : «tutto stracangiato»; SIM 6219: «– Ha stracangiato l’acqua nell’aceto!»; NCC 7822: «si ritrov a stracangiato». Dal sic. ṣṭṛacangiari (ṣṭṛacanciari) ‘trasformare’. tabuto, FA 2127: «Tano era vicino al t.»; SIM 6434: «un t. di tavole bianche». Dal sic da morto’. 31 tallarida, SIM 64 : «volo di tallaride tra colonne». Dal sic. taddarìta ‘pipistrello’. 4 tangeloso, NCC 135 : «tempo t. dell’infanzia». Dal sic. tangilùsu ‘fragile’, ‘delicato’. 17 tannura, NCC 106 : «sventagliava nel buco della t.». Sic. ‘Fornello simile a taratuffolo, NCC 603 : «funghi taratuffoli». Dal sic. taratùffulu ‘tartufo’. 29  30 rida. 857 : «pane t. e acqua»; NCC 7117: «un pane duro e un pezzo di t.». Dal sic. tumazzu , NCC 16417: «discese alla t.»; OO 514 : tre’. 13: «il v. che saliva serpeggiando»; OO in cima agli spuntoni del recinto dello z.». Dal sic. zàccanu ‘luogo dove si a palma nana’. zotta, SIM 8118: «con schiocchi in aria di z.»; R 166 : «schioccò pigro la z.». Sic. ‘Sferza’. tarderita, NCC 474 : «volo avvolgente delle tarderite». Variante di talla timpa, SIM 9213: «deviavano ogni tanto s’una t.». Sic. ‘Erta scoscesa’. tinchitè (a), R 15113: «cibarie sopraffine a t.». Sic. ‘A profusione’, ‘senza limite’. tomazzo, SIM ‘formaggio’. travagliare, FA 1292 : «– […] se ne vanno a t.». Dal sic. ṭṛavagghïari ‘lavorare’. trazzèra, SIM 6231: «– Sulla t. ebbe la visione»; trazzera «vanno per viottole, trazzere». Sic. ‘Sentiero campes trìscia, R 10914: «poseidonie e trìscie». Sic. ‘Alga’. truscia, SIM 877 : «raccolse la t.». Sic. ‘Fagotto’, ‘pacco con la colazione’. tuma, R 6327: «una forma di t. o fresco pecorino». Sic. ‘Cacio fresco non salato’. vèrtola, NCC 5821: «mise nelle vèrtole […] i caciocavalli». Sic. (e panmerid.). ‘Bisaccia’. viòlo, SIM 878 : «a precipizio giù per il v.»; violo, NCC 10 9216: «Scese la brigata per il v.». Dal sic. viòlu ‘viottolo’. vròccolo, NCC 1197 : «cardi vròccoli finocchi». Dal sic. vruòcculu ‘broccolo’, ‘cavolfiore’. zàccano, NCC 5718: « ricoverano le bestie’. zafarano, R 956 : «odor di z.». Dal sic. zafaranu ‘zafferano’. zammara, FA 5934: «buttarsi dietro un piede di z.». Dal sic. zzammàra ‘foglia dell zammù, SIM 1313: «una spruzzatina di z.»; NCC 1319: «acqua e z.». Sic. ‘Anice’
zotta, SIM 8118: «con schiocchi in aria di z.»; R 166 : «schioccò pigro la z.». Sic. ‘Sferza’.
Oblio Roma 15 gennaio 2012

“AMOR SACRO”CRONACA DI UN ROMANZO MAI NATO

di Sergio Buonadonna
Dopo dieci anni di silenzio Vincenzo Consolo torna al romanzo. Considerato l’erede di Vittorini e Sciascia, ma dai più accostato a Gadda per la sua scrittura espressiva, il grande narratore siciliano (78 anni, più di quaranta vissuti a Milano, “il luogo dell’emigrazione come fu per Verga”) si ripropone con una metafora storico-sociale e una scrittura palinsestica (cioè scrittura su altre scritture) come nella sua famosa trilogia: “Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio” tema il Risorgimento, “Nottetempo casa per casa” (il fascismo), “Lo Spasimo di Palermo” (la contemporaneità fino alle stragi Falcone e Borsellino). Al grande ritorno sta accudendo da anni, ne è segno la fitta libreria d’epoca accumulata accanto al suo tavolo da lavoro che domina l’ampio studio carico di volumi, quadri e disegni tra cui quelli a lui carissimi di Guttuso e Pasolini. Racconta Consolo: “Il titolo di questo romanzo storico, lo dico con molto pudore, è Amor Sacro, è un processo d’Inquisizione di cui ho trovato i documenti all’Archivio di Madrid: una storia che si svolge in Sicilia. La vicenda riguarda un monaco e quindi Amor sacro direi che è appropriato. Ma non voglio aggiungere altro ché sarebbe impudico. Il secolo è la fine del Seicento, tempo, luogo e stagione di furori e misteri. Tuttavia non dico come Arbasino: sapesse signora mia la mia vita è un romanzo. I miei libri sono sempre storico-metaforici. Spero”. Si parla del passato per dire del presente? “Sans doute, come dicono i francesi. Senza dubbio”. Sicché – pubblicato questo libro tra la fine del 2011 e l’inizio del 2012 – dovremmo vedere finalmente il Meridiano che raccoglierà la tua opera?“ Tutta l’opera completa, questo è l’accordo con Mondadori anche se devo chiarire che ho atteso a lungo perché il mio contratto iniziale era con Arnoldo Mondadori. Berlusconi è arrivato dopo e come si sa io non ho molto piacere di lavorare per il cavaliere. Ma rispetterò i patti. Nel Meridiano ci saranno anche i miei scritti giovanili. Giorni fa è venuto a trovarmi un professore dell’Università di Gerona, bravissimo, che sta curando tutti i miei racconti. Il primo risale al 1952”.È giusto definire un tuo libro romanzo o narrazione? Ne “Lo Spasimo di Palermo” appare infatti il tuo manifesto letterario quando avverti: ‘il romanzo è un genere scaduto, corrotto, impraticabile…’“Quando negli anni Sessanta ho cominciato a scrivere il mio primo libro, ho visto cos’era accaduto nel nostro Paese soprattutto dal punto di vista linguistico, ma anche in campo letterario, politico, civile. C’era stata una forte mutazione, l’esodo dei contadini del sud, la ricerca di una lingua altra che non fosse quell’italiano che – come dice Leopardi – aveva l’infinito in sé. La lingua italiana l’aveva perso, s’era orizzontalizzata perciò il mio scrupolo è stato reperire dei preziosi giacimenti linguistici che ci sono in Sicilia, dove sono passate tante civilizzazioni, recuperare vocaboli immettendoli nel codice italiano. In Sicilia questi giacimenti linguistici significano greco, latino, spagnolo, arabo, tante parole che riportavo in superficie. Un giorno un dialettologo dell’Università di Catania mi chiese dove hai preso la parola “calasía” perché nei vocabolari siciliani non c’è? Gli risposi: viene dal greco kalós che vuol dire bello. Nella mia zona tra le province di Messina e Palermo, che è greco-bizantina si dice che calasía, che bellezza”. Insisto. Che cosa distingue il romanzo dalla narrazione? “È la distinzione che fa Walter Benjamin. Nella tragedia greca c’era l’anghelos, il messaggero che arrivava in scena, si rivolgeva al pubblico della cavea e narrava quello che era successo altrove in un altro momento. Oggi io dico che la cavea è vuota, non ci sono più i lettori. Quindi non sai a chi rivolgerti e perciò l’anghelos non appare in scena. Sono i lettori che scelgono l’autore”. Tu in Sicilia avevi scelto Lucio Piccolo e Sciascia. Come si collocano nella tua formazione? “Per me Piccolo e Sciascia erano due riferimenti fondamentali. Quando ho pubblicato “La ferita dell’aprile” l’ho mandato con una missiva a Leonardo Sciascia e lui mi ha risposto con una bellissima lettera invitandomi ad andarlo a trovare a Caltanissetta. È nato un rapporto di amicizia, quando ci incontravamo le nostre conversazioni sulla Sicilia erano davvero intense e avvincenti. Dall’altra parte c’era Lucio Piccolo, che era di Capo d’Orlando, stava nella villa in campagna con il fratello Casimiro, un esoterico, e la sorella Giovanna una botanica, Lucio poeta era cugino di Tomasi di Lampedusa col quale aveva un antagonismo incredibile. Quando andavo da Piccolo lui mi diceva salutami il caro Sciascia e quando andavo da Sciascia, Leonardo mi diceva salutami Piccolo. Poi ho fatto in modo di farli incontrare. Piccolo, che stava quasi sempre chiuso nella sua magione, quando arrivavano ospiti dava il meglio di sé. Era di una cultura infinita. Anni dopo Sciascia dichiarò che i due personaggi che più l’avevano colpito nella sua vita erano stati Borges e Lucio Piccolo. Poi è esploso il fenomeno del Gattopardo. In un’altra circostanza ho saputo che in un alberghetto di campagna vicino al mio paese c’era Salvatore Quasimodo con un’amica che presentava come figlia, sono andato a scovarlo e ho fatto in modo di accompagnarlo per fargli conoscere Lucio Piccolo, ma siccome questi era stato scoperto da Montale, acerrimo nemico di Quasimodo, allora il Nobel, uscendo dalla villa, mi fa: questo piccolo poeta”. Al nord stringi invece intensi rapporti con Pasolini e Calvino. Che cosa succede nella cultura italiana perché oggi sia così difficile trovare dei riferimenti che segnano veramente il tempo e la cultura? “Non voglio essere profeta di sventure ma credo che la letteratura italiana ormai sia al grado zero. Mi arrivano parecchi libri di esordienti. Leggo le prime pagine e rimango allibito dalla banalità della scrittura, delle storie, tutti che guardano il proprio ombelico, la propria infanzia, il papino, la mammina, le vicende personali, familiari, sessuali, non c’è uno sguardo nella storia nostra. La società è assente e ci si chiede ma ‘sta letteratura dov’è andata a finire? Negli anni Sessanta, dopo un’infelice esperienza alla Rai, che mi aveva cacciato perché mi ero rifiutato di mandare in onda un’autointervista su Cavour dell’allora direttore generale Italo De Feo (suocero di Emilio Fede), grazie a Calvino sono stato per più di dieci anni consulente della casa editrice Einaudi. Quando arrivavano i dattiloscritti, io dovevo essere il primo a leggerli, fare la relazione scritta e leggerla alla riunione del famoso mercoledì. Se io approvavo il libro, passava a Calvino. Quindi se lui l’approvava passava a Natalia Ginzburg per il giudizio conclusivo. Oggi basta andare alla televisione a sculettare o a fare il cantante, si scrive il romanzo e subito diventa best-seller. Questa è la letteratura italiana attuale”. La letteratura può far paura perché non è dominabile? “Senz’altro. La letteratura vera non è dominabile, se poi invece aspetti l’applauso e il successo sei dominabilissimo. Fai la volontà del padrone”. La Sicilia è sempre il cuore delle tue storie anche quando racconti il male di vivere, in certo modo l’inutilità di stare in Sicilia. “Diceva Verga che non ci si può mai allontanare dai luoghi della propria memoria. Lui l’ha fatto per parecchio tempo, i cosiddetti romanzi mondani quand’era a Milano, poi c’è stata la famosa conversione quando comincia il ciclo del verismo, ma anche Pirandello ha scritto che noi siamo i primi anni della nostra vita, cioè che quei segni sono incancellabili”. La distanza ti ha consentito una messa a fuoco migliore della realtà siciliana?“ Anche questo diceva Verga, e Capuana scriveva che la lontananza serviva a vedere più obiettivamente il luogo in cui si era nati e vissuti, il luogo della memoria”. E l’infinito presente del nostro tempo che cosa ci sta rubando? “Sia la memoria del passato che la visione di quel che può essere l’immediato futuro. Viviamo in questo infinito presente”.

Pietha de Woogd ,traduttrice di Retablo in lingua olandese. Intervista Vincenzo Consolo Il 3 marzo 2011.