LEGGERE E SCRIVERE IL MEDITERRANEO


di Ada Bellanova
Fornire una definizione del Mediterraneo non è un compito semplice. Mare – e contesto – in perenne trasformazione, come dimostra la sua storia ecologica, esso resiste ad ogni generalizzazione1 . Si può certamente tentare la strada della determinazione strettamente geografica ma si deve riconoscere che a poco serve dire che si tratta di un mare semichiuso su cui si affacciano vari popoli, diversi tra loro eppure simili per la loro posizione e per la condivisione di problemi e risorse. Si deve poi ammettere che il cosiddetto ecosistema mediterraneo ha subito trasformazioni profonde nel corso dei millenni: eliminazione di boschi e foreste, aumento della popolazione, sfruttamento delle risorse, mutamenti climatici, cambiamenti di fauna e flora2 . Le trasformazioni, tra l’altro, contraddistinguono anche la storia della rappresentazione. L’idealizzazione del passato classico che ha sedotto innumerevoli viaggiatori non esiste più e il Mediterraneo si rivela contesto dalle molte facce, non facilmente assimilabile al solo mondo europeo o occidentale3 . Perciò, come tentare una definizione? Cos’è veramente mediterraneo? Se la politica europea contemporanea ha ridotto la questione al problema della frontiera, al rischio di nuove invasioni barbariche4 , ragion per cui il mare è diventato spazio delle indesiderate migra-
1 La complessità del Mediterraneo è centrale nei recenti studi di Mediterranean ecocriticism. Si veda a proposito S. Iovino, Introduction: Mediterranean ecocriticism, or a Blueprint for Cultural Amphibians, in “Ecozon@”, 4.2, 2013, pp. 1-14, in particolare a p. 4. 2 Ibidem. La Iovino propone il caso dell’importazione di tutta una serie di piante e prodotti nel regno della vitis vinifera e dell’olea europaea, con conseguente profondissime sulla cosiddetta dieta mediterranea (si pensi a pomodoro, riso, caffè ecc.). 3 Ivi, p. 5. 4 Si veda a proposito il saggio di C. Resta, Geofilosofia del Mediterraneo, Mesogea, Messina 2012. Sul Mediterraneo come confine, frontiera anche A. Le-
zioni di masse di disperati, tra cui possono nascondersi pericolosi attentatori, e luogo di inevitabile sepoltura, un vero cimitero, di quanti non arrivano a compiere la traversata a bordo di gommoni e imbarcazioni di fortuna, gli intellettuali hanno mantenuto il Mediterraneo al centro di un vivace dibattito culturale. Dibattito che prova a mettere in discussione gli stereotipi. Rischiose sono infatti le immagini rassicuranti dell’idillio naturalistico e della civiltà dell’accoglienza da una parte oppure, all’estremo opposto, quelle fosche della violenza e della sopraffazione. Da una parte il paradiso turistico a buon mercato, le spiagge seducenti, l’esotismo della porta accanto, dall’altra quello della mafia, dell’estorsione, della corruzione delle classi dirigenti, della mancanza di sicurezza, dell’estremismo. L’una e l’altra immagine non sono che la faccia legale e quella illegale dell’inserimento subalterno del Sud nel mondo dello sviluppo, ai suoi margini, “laddove i modelli seducenti proposti dalle capitali del Nord-ovest si decompongono fino a diventare deformi”5 . Tali riduttive determinazioni trascurano la reale complessità del Mediterraneo, che, non a caso, Braudel tenta di definire nel segno della molteplicità e con l’espressione “crocevia eteroclito”6 . Questo spazio, quindi, non consiste soltanto in una teoria di paesaggi, addirittura non lo si può dire neppure mare unico, perché esso è piuttosto un insieme di mari. Nemmeno si esaurisce nell’elenco di tanti popoli diversi perché essi sono entrati spesso in relazione, avvicendandosi su uno stesso spazio o su spazi confinanti, si sono mescolati, hanno plasmato il territorio, anche come spazio dell’immaginazione, e continuano a farlo, rendendo impossibile una reductio ad unum. Ragion per cui Matvejevic può affermare che non esiste una sola cultura mediterranea, ma ce ne sono invece molte, caratterizzate da tratti simili e da differenze, mai assoluti o costanti7 .
 ogrande, La frontiera, Feltrinelli, Milano 2017, che indaga sulla condizione dei migranti. 5 F. Cassano, Il pensiero meridiano, Laterza, Bari 1996, pp. 3-4. 6 F. Braudel, Mediterraneo, in Id. (a cura di), Il Mediterraneo. Lo spazio la storia gli uomini le tradizioni, trad. it. di E. De Angeli, Bompiani, Milano 1987, pp. 7-8. 7 P. Matvejevic, Il Mediterraneo e l’Europa, Garzanti, Milano 1998, p. 31. Si veda anche Id., Quale Mediterraneo, quale Europa?, in F. Cassano, D. Zolo (a cura di), L’alternativa mediterranea, Feltrinelli Milano, 2007, p. 436:
 L’incontro ha sempre comportato delle criticità, in primis una diffusa e pressoché costante conflittualità8 : come scrive Braudel, “in tutto il Mediterraneo l’uomo è cacciato, rinchiuso, venduto, torturato”9 . Ma il contesto mediterraneo non si configura solo come spazio di guerra: nei secoli le civiltà dominanti non hanno potuto cancellare del tutto quelle sottomesse; si sono sempre attivati meccanismi di contaminazione, dialogo, stratificazione. Allora forse la sua “essenza profonda”10 sta nell’esempio che esso può offrire della convivenza tra culture differenti. Solo tale approccio all’alterità può permettere al Mediterraneo, “mare tra le terre”, di essere non confine, limite, ma luogo di relazione e di incontro11. Il problema è anche di politica europea, o dovrebbe esserlo, non solo per il timore della violazione da parte dei migranti. Il legame tra Europa e Mediterraneo infatti esiste, sebbene venga sistematicamente messo in ombra dalla prevalente prospettiva mitteleuropea, ritenuta vincente dal punto di vista economico12. Considerare la “via” mediterranea significa, secondo Franco Cassano, valorizzare le differenze, la varietà che l’ossessione di uno sviluppo a tutti i costi nega. Significa porsi il problema della gestione degli spazi, laddove gli spazi ospitano un patrimonio “verticale”, incredibilmente stratificato, e quello della cura dell’ambiente e del paesaggio, impedendo che questi siano solo preda dell’abusivismo selvaggio. Significa affrontare la questione dello scambio e della convivenza tra vecchi e nuovi abitanti. Ciò va fatto, ed è un’opportunità, non solo per “custodire forme d’esistenza diverse da quella dominante” ma anche per “tutelare la stessa modernità dal suo avvolgimento in una spirale senza ritorno”
13. “l’insieme mediterraneo è composto da molti sottoinsiemi che sfidano o rifiutano le idee unificatrici”. 8 P. Matvejevic, Mediterraneo. Un nuovo breviario, trad. it.di S. Ferrari, Garzanti, Milano 1993, p. 19. 9 F. Braudel, Civiltà e imperi del Mediterraneo nell’età di Filippo II, trad. it. di C. Pischedda, Einaudi, Torino 1976, pp. 921-922. 10 Id., Mediterraneo, cit., p. 9. 11 Ancora Braudel a proposito della definizione del Mediterraneo come grande strada per trasportare uomini e merci (Id., Storia, misura del mondo, cit. p. 105). 12 F. Cassano, Tre modi di vedere il Sud, Il Mulino, Bologna 2009, pp. 20-24. 13 Id., Il pensiero meridiano, cit., p. 7. Ma si veda anche Id., Paeninsula: l’Italia da ritrovare, Laterza, Roma 1998, pp. 10-11.

1. Lo spazio mediterraneo per Consolo

La scelta di Norma Bouchard e Massimo Lollini di seguire il criterio della mediterraneità nell’antologia del 200614 riflette la centralità dell’interesse di Consolo per la “lettura e la scrittura” dello spazio mediterraneo15. Andando oltre gli stereotipi, la linea interpretativa e rappresentativa dell’autore evidenzia tormento e ricchezza di un contesto complesso, che rifugge qualunque generalizzazione. Parlare della questione e dello spazio mediterraneo significa per Consolo parlare del Sud e, in particolare, della Sicilia. La riflessione sulla complessità del Mediterraneo si innesta dunque sulle considerazioni a proposito della varietà e della molteplicità che caratterizzano la storia, l’ambiente, il patrimonio siciliani. Estremamente significativo appare nell’isola il flusso incessante di energie umane e culturali16, che hanno condizionato e condizionano il paesaggio, accostando e sovrapponendo più identità17. Allo stesso modo l’intero Mediterraneo è amalgama, crocevia di popoli differenti, non solo territorio della conflittualità ma anche patrimonio ricchissimo, possibilità della relazione e dello scambio18: sì scenario di devastazione, dove la tecnologia ha perso la sua funzione antropologica e ha generato mostri che distruggono le antiche città, trasformandole in
 14 V. Consolo, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, a cura di N. Bouchard e M. Lollini, University of Toronto Press, Toronto-Buffalo-London 2006). Si veda il chiarimento nel saggio introduttivo: N. Bouchard, M. Lollini, Introduction: Vincenzo Consolo and His Mediterranean Paradigm, pp. 3-48, a p. 14. Sull’interesse di Consolo per il Mediterraneo si veda anche N. Bouchard, Vincenzo Consolo’s Mediterranean Journeys: From Sicily to the Global South(s), cit. 15 Sul tema anche l’antologia postuma, V. Consolo, Mediterraneo. Viaggiatori e migranti, Edizioni dell’Asino, Roma 2016. 16 C. Gallo, Cultural crossovers in the Sicily of Vincenzo Consolo, in “US-China Foreign Language”, gennaio 2016, vol. 14, n.1, pp. 49-56. 17 Emblematico Uomini e paesi dello zolfo, in Di qua dal faro, pp. 981-982: “Ora qui, per inciso, vogliamo notare che la storia, la storia siciliana, abbia come voluto imitare la natura: un’infinità, un campionario di razze, di civiltà, sono passate per l’isola senza mai trovare tra loro amalgama, fusione, composizione, ma lasciando ognuna i suoi segni”. 18 Tale visione è centrale anche nella riflessione di F. Cassano (i già citati Paeninsula, Il pensiero meridiano, Tre modi di vedere il Sud). Non a caso la scrittura di Consolo e quella di Cassano affiancate espongono il punto di vista italiano per “Rappresentare il Mediterraneo”, collana Mesogea (V. Consolo, F. Cassano, Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, cit.).
moderne metropoli, luoghi di intolleranza politica, religiosa e razziale, ma allo stesso tempo archivio di eredità preziose19. Dunque olivastro e olivo insieme. Ed è per tutelare ‘l’olivo’ che Consolo procede in direzione di un ripensamento dei consolidati effetti della globalizzazione20. L’imposizione dell’economia ritenuta vincente e l’emarginazione dei vari sistemi tradizionali producono inevitabilmente l’aberrante negazione della molteplicità che caratterizza l’identità mediterranea e la rottura degli utili equilibri preesistenti. L’autore dunque riflette sulla gestione degli spazi e della cultura e legge il fenomeno migratorio non come superamento di un limite ma come occasione di scambio che trasforma e vivifica. Nell’ottica di un recupero delle tradizioni e della molteplicità a rischio vanno guardate le scelte linguistiche che recuperano frammenti della Sicilia greca, bizantina, araba, normanna, ovvero le impronte delle lingue parlate un tempo nel Mediterraneo. L’imperativo della salvezza di linguaggi e dialetti dall’oblio si traduce in un plurilinguismo in cui non ci sono parole inventate ma parole scoperte e riscoperte, in un’operazione di riscatto della memoria e, quindi, di ricerca delle radici, dell’identità21. Se la rappresentazione del Mediterraneo risulta ambivalente, anche Ulisse, l’eroe mediterraneo per eccellenza, ha una natura duplice. Il personaggio omerico, associato da Consolo all’uomo contemporaneo, non è l’eroe del ritorno, è piuttosto il migrante: il nóstos gli è costantemente negato, perché nell’approdo all’isola egli scopre il sovvertimento, incontra le macerie di Troia anziché il palazzo di Itaca, ed è condannato perciò ad un esilio senza fine. La sua peregrinazione lo porta a contatto con le varie forme di violenza della modernità nei confronti di piccoli e grandi luoghi, in Sicilia e fuori dalla Sicilia. In ciò il viaggio diventa meditazione sulle proprie responsabilità: insieme all’ansia di scoperta e conoscenza,
 è 19 N. Bouchard, M. Lollini, Introduction: Vincenzo Consolo and His Mediterranean Paradigm, cit., pp. 3-48, a p. 18. 20 Si veda l’intervista con A. Prete (Il Mediterraneo oggi: un’intervista, in “Gallo Silvestre”, 1996, p. 63). 21 G. Traina, Vincenzo Consolo, cit., p. 130. F. Cassano in Rappresentare il Mediterraneo parla di recupero da parte di Consolo di un’antica dimensione sacra della lingua, mediante lo scavo nel passato del Mediterraneo (V. Consolo, F. Cassano, Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, cit., p. 57).
evidenziato il senso di colpa e il rimorso per l’abuso della tecnologia che distrugge patrimoni e vite umane22. Le tappe del viaggio cantato da Omero, a loro volta, come già evidenziato, diventano tessere per comporre l’immagine del mondo contemporaneo. Il mito ha avuto un suo innegabile ruolo nella costruzione dell’identità mediterranea23 perché, sorto da una radice geografica, ha a sua volta modificato e condizionato la percezione collettiva dello spazio, confluendo nel patrimonio di tutti, come è accaduto nei casi esemplari di Scilla e Cariddi o dell’Etna. Ma racconti e leggende antichi legati al territorio possono dire qualcosa di nuovo, possono mettere in luce la stortura: questa è l’operazione a cui si dedica Consolo, ribadendo il legame tra la piana delle vacche del Sole e la Milazzo dell’esplosione o evidenziando l’associazione tra regno dei Lestrigoni e area industriale siracusana. Proprio proponendo il mito originale, allora, enfatizzandone alcuni aspetti, l’autore è capace di trasmettere una denuncia che lamenta la profonda metamorfosi subita dai luoghi: riesce cioè a produrre un’immagine critica dello spazio contemporaneo.

 1.1 Nel segno della varietà del mare

 Consolo si sente figlio della varietà, dei passaggi, degli incroci di popoli che si sono avvicendati sulla sua terra. Perciò, nella straniante Milano, cerca il conforto dell’umanità colorata, varia, di corso Buenos Aires. A Nord egli cerca il suo Mediterraneo e lo trova negli arabi, nei tunisini, negli egiziani, nei marocchini, negli altri africani, lo trova nel “bruno meridionale”: in questa “ondata di mediterraneità” si immerge e si riconcilia, ci si distende come in una spiaggia di sole del Sud24.
 22 Sulla figura di Ulisse e il suo rapporto con il Mediterraneo nell’opera di Consolo si vedano alcune riflessioni di M. Lollini (M. Lollini, Intrecci mediterranei. La testimonianza di Vincenzo Consolo moderno Odisseo, cit, pp. 24-43 o anche l’introduzione, scritta con N. Bouchard, all’antologia Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, N. Bouchard, M. Lollini, Introduction: Vincenzo Consolo and His Mediterranean Paradigm, cit., pp. 19-21). Ma si vedano anche le affermazioni dello stesso Consolo in Fuga dall’Etna, cit., pp. 50-52. 23 B. Westphal (a cura di), Le rivage des mythes. Une géocritique méditerranéenne. Le lieu et son muthe, Pulim, Limoges 2001. 24 “Io che sono di tante razze e che non appartengo a nessuna razza, frutto dell’estenuazione bizantina, del dissolvimento ebraico, della ritrazione ara-
La similitudine esalta la presenza della varietà umana con tutta la sua gamma di neri e bruni qualificandola come occasione, in una Milano grigia al di là dello stereotipo, di sperimentare la mediterraneità. L’accostamento è significativo perché l’esperienza della “spiaggia al primo tiepido sole” è molto mediterranea, tanto più per Consolo, nato e cresciuto in una località di mare. La vita a Sant’Agata di Militello, “paese marino”, “borgo in antico di pescatori”25 gli ha permesso di avere una precoce familiarità con la spiaggia26. “La visione costante del mare” ha scandito l’infanzia, di giochi, bagni e gite sui gozzi. Sulla riva di una contrada poco nota sono approdati guerra e cadaveri della grande Storia27. Perciò lo spazio mediterraneo non può che configurarsi, sulla base dell’esperienza personale, come “mare”. Il tempo del mito che contraddistingue la percezione del mare delle Eolie viene poi superato nella frequentazione di altre coste, altri porti, altri arcipelaghi: il Mediterraneo non è più quello della giovinezza, non solo perché sono mutati i toponimi, le coordinate, ma anche perché a guardarlo ora è un adulto, con una prospettiva nuova, di cronista e narratore, e perché sempre più ristretto è lo spazio della bellezza, e delusione e amarezza nascono dalla coscienza di un patrimonio a rischio di estinzione, vampirizzato dall’indu,
del seppellimento etiope, io, da una svariata commistione nato per caso bianco con dentro mutilazioni e nostalgie. Mi crogiolavo e distendevo dentro questa umanità come sulla spiaggia al primo, tiepido sole del mattino”, Porta Venezia, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 112-113. Nello stesso testo (p. 114) gli eritrei che, ai tavoli di un ristorante, mangiano tutti con le mani da uno stesso grande piatto centrale il tipico zichinì gli ricordano l’uso delle famiglie contadine siciliane di una volta. Anche nell’osservazione di questo gesto c’è il conforto del recupero di un’identità, specialmente nel confronto con un Nord tanto diverso. Poco più avanti anche la musica, in un bar egiziano, suggerisce legami, suscita l’evocazione dell’identità mediterranea (Ivi, p. 115). 25 Il mare, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, p. 220. 26 La grande vacanza orientale-occidentale, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 163-169, a p. 165. Molte le dichiarazioni a proposito di una vita “anfibia”, vissuta cioè a stretto contatto con l’acqua. “Sono stato un bambino anfibio, vissuto più nell’acqua che nella terraferma” (La Musa inquieta, in “L’Espresso”, 15 aprile 1991). 27 Il mare, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 220-221; La grande vacanza orientale-occidentale, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 164-165. Nella caratterizzazione del Mediterraneo, a partire dal paese natale, si intrecciano memorie personali e dati della storia ufficiale: lo scorrere del tempo plasma i luoghi, oggettivamente e nella ricezione personale dell’autore.
 -strializzazione selvaggia, o dello scenario di nuove guerre, nuove violenze, nuova morte. È negato l’idillio della vita libera e bella con la vista costante delle isole del dio, e risulta stravolto orrendamente anche il lavoro dell’uomo: i pescatori non tirano più nelle reti il pesce azzurro, bensì cadaveri di clandestini28.

1.2 Tra olivo e olivastro: il patrimonio e la violenza

Pur consapevole della varietà e della complessità che lo caratterizzano, Consolo percepisce lo spazio mediterraneo come un mondo unico e vi rintraccia caratteri ricorrenti, corrispondenze e somiglianze. Memoria di paesaggi noti, conoscenze geografiche, storia della rappresentazione si intrecciano nel proporre associazioni relative al patrimonio naturalistico, considerazioni sulle fragilità degli spazi urbani e sui problemi ecologici. A permettere, in Arancio sogno e nostalgia, la definizione del Mediterraneo come regno solare degli aranci, è l’esperienza della pervasività di una coltivazione, che caratterizza fortemente il paesaggio, dalla Sicilia alla Grecia, dal Maghreb alla Spagna. Riconosciuto come traccia artistica, segno di civiltà, ma anche come straordinario catalizzatore di gratificanti percezioni sensoriali – il colore vibrante dei frutti e delle foglie, l’odore e il sapore –, l’arancio è per Consolo, al di là del facile e consolidato stereotipo di un Sud di agrumi e sole capace di attirare i viaggiatori stranieri, sogno di un Eden perduto, simbolo cioè, nel confronto con coordinate geografiche stravolte dall’industrializzazione, come nel caso della Conca d’oro palermitana, di un’integrità ecologica e culturale, di uno spazio sano in cui piante odorose possono ancora fare mostra di sé accanto alle rovine del passato29.
 Della tipica vegetazione mediterranea conserva notazioni il diario del viaggio in Jugoslavia: i pini piegati fino al mare, gli ulivi, i fichi, le vigne non segnano solo il paesaggio balcanico, ma anche quello greco, siciliano, turco, e si può inferire che anche il gesto
28 Il mare, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 221-222. 29 Arancio, sogno e nostalgia, in “Sicilia Magazine”, dicembre 1988, pp. 35-46, ora in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 128-133. La citazione è alle pp. 128-129.
della donna che stende i frutti ad essiccare richiami ricordi di altre geografie più familiari30.
Nel resoconto della visita in Palestina nel 2002 poi Consolo scrive di “un paesaggio […] di colline rocciose e desertiche, che somiglia all’altopiano degli Iblei in Sicilia”31. Ma oltre al profilo fisico del territorio, a suggerire accostamenti sono gestualità e dolore delle donne per i combattenti morti: nei movimenti e nel lamento si colgono i tratti della tragedia greca, la cerimonia funebre di tutto il Mediterraneo32.
Città, anche distanti, sono accomunate dalla difficoltà di reggersi sul proprio passato, dalla fatica nella gestione della verticalità, della stratificazione, dal segno della decadenza a contatto con la modernità. Il paesaggio urbanistico mediterraneo risulta perciò inserito nella riflessione ecologica sullo spazio siciliano. Le case semicrollate nel reticolo delle viuzze della Casbah di Algeri evocano l’immagine del centro storico di Palermo33 e quasi topos diventano la crescita disordinata e veloce, l’invasione dei nuovi palazzi, il traffico, nel paesaggio urbano siracusano o in quello di Salonicco34. In L’olivo e l’olivastro dalla meditazione sulla decadenza della città di Siracusa, già accostata ad altre città del Mediterraneo, Atene, Argo, Costantinopoli, Alessandria35, scaturisce il racconto di
 30 Ma questa è Sarajevo o Assisi?, in “L’Espresso”, 30 ottobre 1997. Si tratta del racconto del viaggio fatto a Sarajevo con altri intellettuali italiani per restituire la visita di un anno prima da parte di otto membri del Circolo 99 (di Sarajevo). 31 Madre Coraggio, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, p. 196. Il testo, uscito per la prima volta in italiano in V. Consolo et al., Viaggio in Palestina, Nottetempo, Roma 2003, ma già apparso precedentemente online, anche in francese, è il resoconto del viaggio in Palestina in qualità di membro del Parlamento internazionale degli scrittori. 32 Madre Coraggio, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, p. 197. Consolo si riferisce alla cerimonia funebre mediterranea così com’è codificata in Morte e pianto rituale di E. De Martino che infatti ricorda. Ivi, p. 199. 33 Orgogliosa Algeri tra mitra e coltello, in “Il Messaggero”, 20 settembre 1993. 34 Ne abbiamo già parlato per Siracusa. Si veda invece quello che Consolo scrive di Salonicco in Neró metallicó: “città moderna, piena di luci, di insegne, di manifesti pubblicitari, di quartieri appena costruiti come d’una città che è stata invasa da immigrati, che in poco tempo ha moltiplicato i suoi abitanti. E piena di traffico” (Neró metallicó, in Il corteo di Dioniso, La Lepre edizioni, Roma 2009, p. 9). 35 L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 820.
una visita lungo la costa africana, a Ustica36. Il ricordo si sofferma in particolare sulle rovine e, a sorpresa, sul basilico profumato che cresce in abbondanza tra le pietre e i mosaici. Quello che è apparentemente un particolare senza importanza serve però a definire un patrimonio di piccole cose, comune a tutto il Mediterraneo37. L’Ustica di Consolo è rovine e basilico. Ma tutto il Mediterraneo in qualche modo è Ustica. Tutto il Mediterraneo è fatto di “piccoli luoghi antichi e obliati” come Ustica, in cui la natura si intreccia con la memoria del passato38. Ma il rischio della dimenticanza è in agguato, l’incuria è già realtà, e il ricordo diventa occasione di meditazione amara: nell’enumerazione di antiche città, nell’anafora del verbo “ricordare”, Consolo si trasforma in un “presbite di mente” tutto rivolto verso il passato, si trasforma in “infimo Casella” tutto proteso verso qualcosa che non c’è più39. Se l’anima del musico appena giunta sulla spiaggia del Purgatorio mostra ancora un grande attaccamento alla vita terrena, tanto da slanciarsi verso Dante, memore dell’antico affetto, e la stessa canzone dantesca da lui intonata è all’insegna della nostalgia, il riferimento evidenzia proprio il legame che Consolo sente con il passato, con ciò che non esiste più, come la vita terrena per le anime purganti. Ma la sovrapposizione non è perfetta: il richiamo alla canzone Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona è immediatamente contraddetto dal “Non più, odia ora” e il canto non ha nulla della dolcezza del regno del Purgatorio, ma piut36 Ivi, p. 836. 37 Ibidem. 38 I mosaici e il basilico di Utica sono già ricordati in un passo di Malophoros, in un elenco di caratteristici e rapidi ritratti di piccoli luoghi carichi di passato, dalla Sicilia alla Grecia al Nord Africa: Malophoros, in Le pietre di Pantalica, pp. 574-575. Dello stesso tono la precedente osservazione sulle “stazioncine solitarie remote, di luoghi antichi, sacri, come quella di Segesta, di Cartaghe-Hannibal, di Pompei o di Olimpia” che sanno essere “commoventi, hanno ormai anche loro qualcosa di antico, di sacro” (p. 574). Omaggio ai “piccoli luoghi antichi e obliati” sono per lo più gli interventi apparsi su “L’Espresso” tra il 1981 e il 1982, dedicati a centri poco noti, come Miraglia, Valverde, Galati o Filosofiana. Il tono di questi articoli è però di solito quasi giocoso, un invito al godimento delle bellezze e delle ricchezze sconosciute, anche gastronomiche. Luogo antico e fuori dai soliti canali turistici (non segnalata sulla “Guide Bleu”) è anche Dion, stesa nella pianura ai piedi del Monte Olimpo a cui sono dedicate alcune pagine in Neró Metallicó (Il corteo di Dioniso, cit., pp. 19-20). 39 L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 837.
tosto una rabbia infernale, un tono che pretenderebbe “rime aspre e chiocce”:

No, non più. Odia ora. Odia la sua isola terribile, barbarica, la sua terra di massacro, d’assassinio, odia il suo paese piombato nella notte, l’Europa deserta di ragione. Odia questa Costantinopoli saccheggiata, questa Alessandria bruciata, quest’Atene, Tebe, Milano, Orano appestate, questa Messina, Lisbona terremotate, questa Conca d’oro coperta da un sudario di cemento, il giardino delle arance insanguinate. Odia questo teatro dov’è caduta la pietà, questa scena dov’è stata sgozzata Ifigenia, quest’Etna, questa Tauride di squadracce dove si consumano merci e vite, si svende onore, decenza, lingua, cultura, intelligenza…40

 Dai toni nostalgici Consolo passa a quelli indignati di un coro antico e professa odio prima nei confronti della sua Sicilia, diventata “terribile, barbarica, terra di massacro”, una Tauride percorsa da “squadracce”, poi verso l’Europa e verso l’intero Mediterraneo. Il dramma in atto ha proporzioni gigantesche e il riferimento ai simboli della tragedia euripidea ne sancisce la gravità: sulla cavea è stata sgozzata Ifigenia, si è prodotto cioè il sacrificio dei sacrifici, la morte della sacerdotessa che Artemide aveva voluto salva, la morte dell’esiliata e, con lei, la morte di ogni forma di giustizia, cultura, rispetto. Il presente è una Tauride senza speranza. All’attentato nei confronti del patrimonio naturalistico e culturale si accompagna la violenza contro la vita umana, in svariate forme: il Mediterraneo è, per Consolo, spazio della conflittualità. La Palermo di Le pietre di Pantalica, in preda alle lotte di mafia, è come Beirut41: le bombe, i kalashnikov, gli efferati omicidi, il sangue sparso dai killer lasciano tra le strade siciliane il disastro dei campi di battaglia e spingono all’associazione con quell’altra violenza, in atto dall’altra parte dello stesso mare, della guerra che porta alla distruzione della capitale libanese. Comiso, poi, coi suoi missili Cruise, rappresenta la minaccia costante della violenza tra popoli a cui neppure le proteste dei pacifisti, bloccate brutalmente, possono opporsi. Nel racconto eponimo di Le pietre di Pantalica, mentre il paese “folgorato dal sole”, quasi fosse “uno di quei vuoti gusci dorati di cicala”, è tutto ripiegato nel suo torpore estivo,
40 Ibidem. 41 Le pietre di Pantalica, in Le pietre di Pantalica, p. 625.
poco più in là l’aeroporto, nella campagna deserta, accoglie i lavori per l’installazione. Alla sola vista del cancello con la scritta “Zona militare-Divieto d’accesso” emerge la tremenda apocalittica considerazione: “Non resterà di noi neanche una vuota, dorata carcassa, come quella della cicala scoppiata nella luce d’agosto. Non resterà compagna, figlio o amico; ricordo, memoria; libro, parola”42. Quasi a dire che troppo in là è andato l’uomo. Nel testo successivo, che porta nel titolo il toponimo, le cicale – ancora loro – che cantano nel sole estivo enfatizzano la pace e la fiacca che prelude alla carica delle forze dell’ordine sui dimostranti43. Di fronte al degrado della violenza – guerra per difendere la possibilità di fare la guerra – e di fronte alla speculazione edilizia e all’inquinamento, l’unica consolazione possibile viene a Consolo dalle rovine immerse nella natura, ovvero dal valore di un patrimonio naturalistico e culturale. Come ad Utica e ancor di più che ad Ustica, negli Iblei a Cava d’Ispica, a poca distanza da Comiso: qui ci sono “le migliaia di grotte scavate dall’uomo, le abitazioni, le chiese, le necropoli della preistoria, della storia più antica dei Siculi, dei Greci, dei Romani, dei Bizantini, di quelli di pochi anni passati”, qui c’è “un cammino bordato dai bastoni fioriti delle agavi, dagli ulivi, dai fichi, dai pistacchi, dai carrubi”44. E fuori dalla Sicilia? Una serie di articoli scritti a partire dagli anni Novanta denuncia una violenza connaturata in numerosi luoghi del Mediterraneo. Teatro del nascente integralismo è il Maghreb, l’Algeria in particolare, dove Consolo nel maggio 1991
 42 Ivi, p. 623. 43 Più tardi, nell’atto unico Pio La Torre, Consolo accenna al coinvolgimento della mafia siciliana e americana nell’affare dei missili (Pio La Torre, cit., p. 65) e offre un’immagine amara della nuova Comiso, che contrasta con il passato nell’offesa dell’inquinamento selvaggio e della minaccia di una guerra (Ivi, p. 77). 44 Comiso, in Le pietre di Pantalica, pp. 637-638. Il testo si chiude con una visita alla necropoli bizantina di Cava d’Ispica. C’è la luna e, guardandola, Consolo ricorda la preghiera della Norma belliniana: “Casta diva, che inargenti / queste sacre, antiche piante…”. Dichiara di non sapere il motivo del ricordo. In realtà la memoria ha a che fare, più o meno volutamente, con Zanzotto, nella cui opera la presenza della Norma è significativa: in più di un’occasione il poeta, riferendosi alla luna, allude alle parole della sacerdotessa (un esempio su tutti l’Ipersonetto: “Casta diva” o “sembiante”, A. Zanzotto, Tutte le poesie, cit., p. 571).
scorge il rischio che “il mistico linguaggio della preghiera” si stravolga nel “mortale linguaggio delle armi”45. Uno “scenario apocalittico, sconvolgente”46 caratterizza poi la Sarajevo del 1997. Il “paesaggio di macerie” che si mostra allo sguardo mano a mano che gli italiani in visita si inoltrano nell’entroterra, con la guida di Matvejevic, impressiona ancor di più per il contrasto con il quieto profilo mediterraneo della costa, dove non c’è traccia di guerra e dove Consolo ritrova la vegetazione della sua terra. La città distrutta evoca le dure immagini del Trionfo della morte di Bruegel o quelle di Los desastres de la guerra di Goya47; i suoi resti, accostati a quelli di Assisi appena colpita dal terremoto, si fanno ammonimento, metafora “del nostro scadimento”: “siamo scivolati sul ciglio della voragine paurosa della natura”, ovvero è scomparsa la civiltà. Infernale è infine la Palestina, visitata da Consolo con altri membri del PIE nel 2002 48. Nella descrizione del tragitto che da Tel Aviv conduce a Ramallah, l’accostamento del paesaggio a quello siciliano si rompe all’apparizione dei check point e delle mitragliatrici, e sempre più nel procedere verso la striscia di Gaza si moltiplicano i segni di rovina e lutto, pur nella prorompente vitalità dei “nugoli di bambini dagli occhi neri”49, al punto che il percorso in direzione dei villaggi di Khan Yunus
45 Quei parabolizzati che sognano l’Italia, in “Corriere della sera”, 20 giugno 1991; Orgogliosa Algeri tra mitra e coltello, cit. Si veda anche la prefazione al libro di poesie di Mokthar Sakhri (Poesie, Libro italiano, Ragusa 2000). L’esperienza giornalistica ritorna nel romanzo Lo Spasimo di Palermo (pp. 903-905): Chino Martinez nel giardino della moschea di Parigi ripensa allo sciopero di Algeri, al mitra e al Corano degli integralisti. Sui fondamentalismi nel Mediterraneo si veda anche l’intervista con A. Prete, Il Mediterraneo oggi: un’intervista, cit., pp. 65-66. Sul fondamentalismo di matrice islamica e in particolare sull’attacco alle torri gemelle, Consolo si esprime manifestando un’accesa critica nei confronti di Oriana Fallaci, evidenziando da una parte che non serve reagire con la violenza e che molti sono i vantaggi dell’incrocio tra culture, come insegna la storia siciliana (l’intervista a cura di G. Caldiron, Lo scrittore siciliano Vincenzo Consolo risponde a Oriana Fallaci “Parole che conducono alla violenza”, in “Liberazione”, 2 ottobre 2001). 46 Ma questa è Sarajevo o Assisi, cit. 47 Sempre a proposito della guerra in Jugoslavia il riferimento all’opera di Goya compare in La morte infinita, in “Il Messaggero”, 6 febbraio 1994. 48 Madre Coraggio, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, pp. 195-200. 49 Ivi, p. 197.
e Rafah pare “una discesa nei gironi infernali”50. L’immagine più forte, quasi un simbolo, è però quella della resistenza eroica di una madre: ad aprire e chiudere il resoconto del viaggio è la figura della donna di Ramallah51, “imponente, dalla faccia indurita”, che vende nepitella raccolta nei luoghi selvatici e che di certo abita nel campo profughi, forse ha figli che combattono.

1.3 Mediterraneo come spazio di migrazioni


 Nella rappresentazione offerta da Consolo l’immagine del Mediterraneo come spazio di migrazioni appare fondamentale e questo, oltre che per una chiara consapevolezza storica, per un’attenta lettura della contemporaneità. Divenuto, nei fatti, confine, limite, addirittura cimitero a causa della grande quantità di morti rimasti imprigionati nelle “carrette”, il mare potrebbe essere, invece, occasione di arricchimento in virtù dello scambio tra popoli. È un’immagine ideale, eppure realizzabile, quella che Consolo propone, insistendo su una storia di civiltà, quella siciliana in particolare, che ha la radice della sua grandezza proprio nell’incontro tra le differenze: ora che l’isola è divenuta luogo di approdo dei migranti che provano a sfuggire alla guerra, alla persecuzione o alla povertà, non si deve dimenticare che il progresso, quello vero, è sempre figlio dell’arricchimento che proviene dall’alterità. Lo dimostrano gli straordinari effetti della dominazione araba in Sicilia, a cui Consolo riconosce, sulla base di un ricco corredo di fonti e seguendo l’opinione di Sciascia, addirittura un valore fondante in termini di identità: i tratti tipici della sicilianità, ovvero lingua, letteratura, arte, agricoltura, cucina e persino fisionomia, risentono tutti del passato arabo52. Non
50 Ivi, p. 199. 51 Ivi, p. 195 e 200. 52 Estremamente rappresentativa appare a proposito la sezione Sicilia e oltre in Di qua dal faro e, in particolare, il saggio introduttivo, La Sicilia e la cultura araba. Il saggio si apre con alcune considerazioni sul legame tra la poesia della scuola siciliana e le qaside dei siculo-arabi, ancora attivi nell’isola sotto i Normanni (La Sicilia e la cultura araba, in Di qua dal faro, pp. 1187- 1192, a p. 1187) e riflette poi su diversi aspetti dell’influenza araba, ad esempio sulla rinascita economica e sullo spirito di tolleranza (p. 1189). Significativi nel testo i rimandi a Sciascia (in particolare alle pp. 1188-1189). Ricordo che il rapporto tra Sciascia e il mondo arabo costituisce un ambito ricco di spunti suggestivi. Significativa è la conclusione del saggio di apertura de La corda
 a caso l’insistenza sulla presenza degli Arabi nell’isola si traduce nella frequente celebrazione delle innovazioni in ambito agricolo, tecnico, delle trasformazioni in ambito artistico-culturale. Di “rinascimento” parla Consolo, non perdendo occasione per evidenziare i lasciti, le tracce ancora vive nella contemporaneità siciliana. La lussureggiante Palermo, ad esempio, non avrebbe chiese-moschee, castelli, palazzi e giardini seducenti, non avrebbe aranceti se non ci fossero stati gli Arabi. Lo spazio insomma risulta segnato profondamente da questa “migrazione”. Sorprendenti riescono ad essere poi – afferma Consolo – gli incroci della storia, e Mazara, che ridiventa araba nel Novecento per il massiccio arrivo dei tunisini, aveva già nel momento del primo approdo dell’827 l’Africa nel suo nome, Mazar, traccia dell’antica presenza cartaginese. Come a dire che è sempre stato normale per i popoli spostarsi, il mare non è di nessuno, non può essere veramente limite, e la terra non reca un marchio di possesso ma molti strati di identità che il tempo e i popoli plasmano, partendo, arrivando. Se innumerevoli sono le eredità, anche visibili, tangibili, sebbene a rischio, del passato arabo, scomparsa del tutto risulta per Consolo la scelta della tolleranza e della convivenza tra culture, confermata anche dai normanni che non vollero eliminare la civiltà che li aveva preceduti, ma la integrarono e la valorizzarono. Perciò l’immagine del Mediterraneo come spazio di equilibrio e coesistenza tra le alterità non è solo parentesi del passato ma anche un’aspirazione, un esempio positivo da opporre a quanti insistono sui rischi dello scontro tra culture53.
 Che l’arrivo di nuovi popoli produca progresso è poi testimoniato per l’autore anche da migrazioni più antiche come dimostra pazza (1970), Sicilia e sicilitudine, in cui l’autore traccia un collegamento ideale tra Salvatore Quasimodo e un poeta arabo di otto secoli precedente, Ibn Hamdis, siciliano di Noto, accomunati dai toni con cui hanno fatto poesia della pena profonda dell’esilio (L. Sciascia, Sicilia e sicilitudine, in Id. La corda pazza, cit., pp. 11-17). Sulla questione particolarmente interessanti risultano anche le osservazioni contenute in uno degli scritti del Canton Ticino, su Tomasi di Lampedusa, apparso su “Libera Stampa” il 27 gennaio 1959, ora raccolto in Troppo poco pazzi (L. Sciascia, Marx Manzoni eccetera e il Gattopardo, in R. Martinoni, a cura di, Leonardo Sciascia nella libera e laica Svizzera, Olschki, Firenze 2011, pp. 102-104 alle pp. 102-103). 53 Nell’ultima intervista Consolo riflette proprio sull’ignoranza di chi solleva lo scontro di civiltà e accosta integralismo e islam (V. Pinello, op. cit.).
l’entusiastica rappresentazione della Sicilia come museo a cielo aperto, che accoglie rovine antiche, città greche, elime, puniche. Ma numerosi sono anche i riferimenti alla nascita delle colonie, a volte molto precisi, con indicazione dell’ecista, del territorio di origine, degli sviluppi della vicenda coloniale54, sulla base dei dati forniti da fonti antiche, come l’opera di Tucidide55, o su testi più recenti che rinviano però alla storiografia greca. E ciò non solo nei testi saggistici: anche le prove narrative offrono una rappresentazione della Sicilia e del Mediterraneo che ne valorizza l’aspetto di crocevia di popoli. Concentrandosi sulle migrazioni dell’antichità, i testi impostano un implicito confronto con gli spostamenti di oggi, riconoscendovi ragioni identiche o simili, ovvero guerra, fame, difficoltà economiche. In particolare, ne L’olivo e l’olivastro56, Consolo si sofferma sull’emigrazione megarese verso la parte orientale dell’isola. La visita ai resti di Megara Hyblaea, oggetto dell’amorevole culto del giovane Salvo e dei suoi, mentre è in corso l’assedio della cannibalica civiltà industriale del polo siracusano, suscita un’entusiastica rievocazione dell’opera dell’ecista Lamis, dell’idea di uguaglianza e progresso dei coloni, della fertilità e della geometria nella suddivisione del terreno in lotti57. All’enfasi sulla fondazione Consolo
 54 Ad esempio, Che non consumi tu tempo vorace, cit., p. 12; I muri d’Europa, in L. Restuccia, G.S. Santangelo, Scritture delle migrazioni: passaggi e ospitalità, Palumbo, Palermo 2008, p. 25. 55 L’archaiologhia siceliota del VI libro si apre con una sintesi storica a proposito dei più antichi popoli locali, a partire dai misteriosi Lestrigoni e Ciclopi, cui segue un quadro preciso delle migrazioni dalla Grecia e delle successive fondazioni. Consolo rinvia a Tucidide per la fondazione di Messina, l’antica Zancle (Vedute dallo stretto di Messina, in Di qua dal faro, p. 1045) e infatti il dato è rintracciabile in Tuc. VI 4,5. Ricava probabilmente dallo storico greco anche il dato relativo alla fondazione di Siracusa da parte dell’ecista Archia (Tuc. VI 3), ricordato in La dimora degli Dei (cit., p. 14). Oltre alla fonte tucididea si può riconoscere anche quella di Diodoro Siculo, esplicitata per la colonizzazione greca delle Eolie (Isole dolci del dio, cit., p. 21). 56 L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 783. 57 Tucidide parla dell’arrivo dei Megaresi (Tuc. VI 4, 1-2) ma non riporta quest’ultimo dato della lottizzazione, che invece si ricava dai rilievi archeologici. A proposito si veda H. Tréziny, De Mégare Hyblaea à Sélinonte, de Syracuse à Camarine: le paysage urbain des colonies et de leurs sous-colonies, in M. Lombardo, F. Frisone (a cura di), Atti del convegno Colonie di colonie: le fondazioni subcoloniali greche tra colonizzazione e colonialismo, Lecce, 22-24 giugno 2006, Congedo editore, Galatina-Martina Franca, 2009,
 aggiunge il plauso per le capacità che i Megaresi, scacciati dai Corinzi di Siracusa, dimostrarono, affrontando l’ignoto della Sicilia occidentale dove fondarono Selinunte. Le sue parole trasfigurano il neutro dato storico di Tucidide (VI 4, 2) attribuendo all’opera dei coloni i tratti di una straordinaria epopea58. I resti della civiltà greca di Megara e Selinunte, dunque, risultano monito contro lo straniamento che viene dalla degenerazione economica e culturale. La coscienza dell’identità trascurata dello spazio e della civiltà che l’ha costruita, originariamente straniera, immigrata, ma secondo le fonti storiche “progredita”, costringe l’attenzione sul rischio della perdita in termini di biodiversità culturale, e l’interesse per gli antichi coloni greci diventa traccia ecocritica. Ha a che fare con la volontà di valorizzare il passato greco dell’isola anche il ricorso al mito. Oltre al viaggio di Ulisse, Consolo ama ricordare la vicenda di Demetra, la madre disperata che, in cerca di sua figlia Kore, vaga per il Mediterraneo59, leggenda molto siciliana, in virtù dei luoghi coinvolti: ad Enna c’era l’antica sede della dea60, e proprio lì si svolse il rapimento di Kore, mentre poco più a
 pp. 163-164; M. Gras, H. Tréziny, Mégara Hyblaea: le domande e le risposte, in Alle origini della magna Grecia, Mobilità migrazioni e fondazioni, Atti del cinquantesimo convegno di studi sulla Magna Grecia, Taranto 1-4 ottobre 2010, Stampa Sud, Mottola 2012, pp. 1133-1147. 58 L’olivo e l’olivastro, pp. 783-784, ma anche Retablo, p. 432; La Sicilia passeggiata, pp. 94-95; Malophoros, in Le pietre di Pantalica, p. 578. 59 Più volte Consolo esibisce citazioni dall’Inno a Demetra (nella traduzione di F. Cassola del 1975). In Retablo ad esempio (Retablo, p. 409) i primi due versi (“Demetra dalle belle chiome, dea veneranda, io comincio a cantare, / e con lei la figlia dalle belle caviglie, che Aidoneo / rapì”) sono esempio di suprema poesia per Clerici che sta sperimentando, nell’esperienza sublime dell’accoglienza da parte di Nino Alaimo, tra l’altro dedito al culto di una Grande Madre mediterranea, una sorta di possessione divina. La Sicilia passeggiata (p. 7) si apre con un’epigrafe tratta dall’Inno (Inno a Demetra, vv. 401-403) che pone l’attenzione sull’esito felice della vicenda, ovvero sul momento del ricongiungimento delle dee e sul ritorno della primavera; più avanti nel testo invece (La Sicilia passeggiata, p. 57) leggiamo anche i vv. 305-311 che descrivono l’amarezza di Demetra dopo la perdita della figlia e le conseguenze nefaste per gli uomini. In L’olivo e l’olivastro (p. 843) i versi 40-44 inquadrano i luoghi come scenario del vagabondaggio sofferente di Demetra. 60 La Sicilia passeggiata, p. 58; L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 822. Al tradizionale luogo del culto di Demetra Consolo si riferisce anche nella prefazione al
Sud, nell’area dello zolfo, la tradizione colloca il regno di Plutone61. La scelta autoriale chiama in causa le dinamiche di rappresentazione del Mediterraneo, ma anche l’identità profonda degli spazi geografici, evidentemente compromessa con il mito. Immaginario collettivo e prospettiva razionalizzante si intrecciano, nell’evidenziare il legame esistente tra Sicilia e Grecia, tra due differenti rive di uno stesso mare. Il culto e il mito, infatti, sarebbero conseguenza della colonizzazione greca62.
Nel mito personale di un mondo antico vivace, fatto di intrecci e incroci alla presenza greca si aggiunge quella cartaginese o quella elima. La vicenda di quest’ultimo popolo, in bilico tra storia e mito, ha a che fare, già secondo Tucidide (VI 2), con l’arrivo in Sicilia dei Troiani: lo storico riferisce che la migrazione, successiva al crollo di Ilio, ebbe come effetto lo stanziamento in territori prossimi a quelli dei Sicani e tale vicinanza portò alla denominazione unica di Elimi per i due popoli; i centri più importanti di questa nuova civiltà furono Segesta e Erice. Consolo, pur conoscendo sicuramente il dato riportato dallo storico, è più sensibile in questo caso alla fonte poetica virgiliana. In La Sicilia passeggiata, ad esempio, il mistero sull’origine di Segesta – o Egesta – richiama i versi 755-758 del V libro dell’Eneide che proprio alla ktisis fanno riferimento63. La quale ktisis si conclude con la fondazione del tempio della dea Venere sulla vetta del monte Erice, com’è ricordato dai vv. 759-760 del V libro virgiliano che Consolo sceglie di citare in La Sicilia passeggiata (“Poi vicino alle stelle, in vetta all’Erice, fondano / un tempio a Venere Idalia”)64, quasi invitando a seguire nell’area occiden
volume di F. Fontana dedicato a Morgantina (V. Consolo, Che non consumi tu tempo vorace, cit., p. 11-13) 61 Consolo ricorda questa associazione tra mito e luogo geografico in La Sicilia passeggiata, p. 62; Uomini e paesi dello zolfo, in Di qua dal faro, p. 985. 62 Molti gli studi sulla questione che evidenziano la difficoltà di definire la reale provenienza del culto di Demetra e Kore. Si veda ad esempio P. Anello, Sicilia terra amata dalle dee, in T. Alfieri Tonini (a cura di), Mythoi siciliani in Diodoro, Atti del seminario di studi, Università degli studi di Milano, 12-13 febbraio 2007 = in “Aristonothos, scritti per il mediterraneo antico”, 2, 2008, pp. 9-24. 63 La Sicilia passeggiata, p. 106. 64 Ivi, p. 108. Consolo precisa il dato poetico aggiungendo che in realtà il tempio è antecedente all’arrivo dei Troiani: parla infatti di un sacello sicano, elimo o fenicio già dedicato al culto della dea dell’amore. Si fa riferimento al tempio anche in Retablo (Retablo, p. 458) e in L’olivo e l’olivastro (L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 860), dove ritroviamo la citazione dei versi dell’Eneide. In L’olivo e l’olivastro sono ricordati “il bosco e la spiaggia del funerale,
 tale dell’isola le orme del passaggio di Enea, sulla base delle indicazioni fornite dall’Eneide: un cammino attento potrebbe permettere di scoprire non solo l’area sacra ericina ma anche il bosco consacrato ad Anchise, la spiaggia dei sacrifici e delle gare65. La scelta di citare proprio i versi del rito di fondazione è interessante perché evidenzia la fusione tra popolazione straniera migrante, i Troiani, e popolazione locale, gli Elimi66. Da tutto ciò risulta evidente per Consolo che gli incontri, gli scambi tra popoli di culture diverse sono stati da sempre causa del cammino della civiltà, e che la chiusura, il rifiuto dell’ignoto che arriva da fuori, è perdita, regressione67. Perciò, egli, servendosi di una frase di Zanzotto, “Ci troviamo oggi tra un mare di catarro e un mare di sperma”, descrive il vecchio continente come perennemente arroccato nelle sue posizioni. “Vecchia” davvero è l’Europa, vecchia l’Italia, non solo per l’età media della popolazione, ma per una cecità di fronte all’arrivo delle masse disperate dei profughi che non riconosce la ricchezza dell’accoglienza e addirittura produce morboso attaccamento ai privilegi, difesi con pericolosi atteggiamenti xenofobi68. All’imperativo dell’accoglienza umanitaria, a cui implicitamente alludono nell’articolo Gli ultimi disperati del canale di Sicilia le immagini tremende del mare-cimitero (“bare di
delle gare in onore d’Anchise” (Ivi, p. 861), menzionati anche in Lo spazio in letteratura (Di qua dal faro, p. 1241). Al mito dell’arrivo dei Troiani in Sicilia si riferisce anche in Retablo l’onomastica relativa al fiume “Criniso o Scamandro” (p. 415). 65 Virgilio narra che Enea, fermatosi presso Drepano – l’attuale Trapani – dopo la parentesi di Cartagine, viene ospitato da Aceste e, con lui e i suoi, celebra gli onori funebri in onore di Anchise, lì seppellito un anno prima. Alla ospitalità già ricevuta da parte di Aceste si riferisce Aen. I 195. La morte di Anchise invece è accennata in Aen. III 707-710. Gli onori funebri in suo onore e i giochi successivi sono al centro del V libro (vv 42-103 e 104-603). 66 Dopo che le donne, istigate da Giunone, hanno dato fuoco alle navi (Aen. V 604-699), l’eroe, ispirato dalla visione di suo padre, decide di fondare una nuova città che sarà abitata da una parte del suo seguito e dai troiani dell’isola. Aceste e i suoi, infatti, che sono già in Sicilia (Aen. V 30 e 35-41) appartengono ad un’antica stirpe troiana. 67 Quando i Lombardi emigrarono in Sicilia, in “Corriere della Sera”, 4 maggio 1991. 68 Gli ultimi disperati del canale di Sicilia, in “La Repubblica”, 18 settembre 2007. La frase di Zanzotto è ripresa da A. Zanzotto, In questo progresso scorsoio. Conversazione con M. Breda, cit., pp. 68-69. Il poeta la usa per commentare la situazione dell’Italia, sospesa tra “un’Europa invecchiante e le esplosioni demografiche vicine”.
ferro nei fondali del mare”) e dell’orrenda pesca dei morti (“i corpi degli annegati nelle reti dei pescatori siciliani”), si accompagna nella prospettiva autoriale l’invito ad una valutazione delle possibilità economiche e culturali che derivano dai flussi di migranti69. Estremamente significativo nel dibattito risulta per Consolo il caso della doppia migrazione da e verso il Maghreb. C’è stato un tempo lontano in cui il braccio di mare tra la Sicilia e le coste africane non era “frontiera, barriera fra due mondi, ma una via di comunicazione e di scambio”70, un tempo in cui era normale per i lavoratori di Sicilia, di Calabria o di Sardegna cercare fortuna nelle terre degli “infedeli”. Tale familiarità tra i due mondi è stata confermata dall’emigrazione ottocentesca, intellettuale e borghese prima, poi anche di braccianti dell’Italia meridionale, verso le coste nordafricane71. Si tratta di un fenomeno che sta molto a cuore a Consolo72. Non a caso egli lo accoglie nella narrazione di Nottetempo, casa per casa.
 69 Negli stimoli offerti dall’emigrazione contemporanea Consolo scorge una possibilità di rinascita anche letteraria: così nell’intervista con A. Bartalucci (A. Bartalucci, op. cit., pp. 201-204, a p. 204). 70 Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, in Di qua dal faro, p. 1193. Consolo si è soffermato prima sulla seconda novella della quinta giornata del Decameron di Boccaccio che propone il tranquillo soggiorno di pescatori cristiani, trapanesi, nella musulmana Tunisia. Ma si veda anche in Retablo l’incontro di Clerici, accompagnato dal fido Isidoro e dal brigante, con Spelacchiata e i suoi compagni barbareschi, che si traduce in uno scambio di cerimonie (Retablo, pp. 438-440). L’episodio tiene conto dell’affinità culturale e della consuetudine dei rapporti tra paesi mediterranei. A proposito del valore della “rotta per Cartagine”, ovvero dell’attenzione consoliana per le relazioni storiche di contiguità e vicinanza tra Sicilia e Nord Africa, P. Montefoschi, Vincenzo Consolo: ritorno a Cartagine, in Id., Il mare al di là delle colline. Il viaggio nel Novecento letterario italiano, Carocci, Roma 2012, pp. 54-60; specificamente sull’episodio di Spelacchiata in Retablo, p. 55. 71 A proposito dell’emigrazione italiana in Tunisia si veda lo studio di F. Blandi: F. Blandi Appuntamento a La Goulette, Navarra Editore, Palermo 2012. 72 Del fenomeno Consolo fornisce dati precisi in diverse occasioni. Si veda in particolare Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, in Di qua dal faro, pp. 1195-1196; Il Mediterraneo tra illusione e realtà, integrazione e conflitto nella storia e in letteratura, in G. Interlandi (a cura di), La salute mentale nelle terre di mezzo. Per costruire insieme politiche di inclusione nel Mediterraneo, Atti del Convegno di Psichiatria Democratica, Caltagirone, 12-13 marzo 2009, numero monografico di “Fogli di informazione”, terza serie, 13-14, gennaio-giugno 2010, pp. 5-7.
La fuga di Petro, nuovo Enea73, si inserisce proprio nel contesto storico della migrazione verso l’Africa settentrionale. La sua vicenda non è eccezionale, se non forse per le motivazioni, ma rientra nella normalità di un flusso migratorio consolidato74. La stessa presenza del personaggio storico di Paolo Schicchi, con cui Petro ha un breve colloquio sulla nave, obbedisce alla storicità del fenomeno. L’anarchico siciliano, infatti, non fu il solo a cercare rifugio in Tunisia per ragioni politiche: esisteva sulla sponda sud del Mediterraneo una nutrita comunità di antifascisti e addirittura una vera e propria comunità anarchica siciliana a Tunisi75.
 Il romanzo si chiude proprio con l’arrivo dall’altra parte del mare: i colori, le architetture, la vegetazione e gli uccelli sanciscono l’approdo ad un nuovo inizio, proprio come accadeva a coloro che emigravano in Tunisia76. Il nuovo spazio su cui si affaccia la nave si carica di attese, di possibilità, innesca un confronto con il passato, con la terra abbandonata, accende speranze, suscita decisioni. Petro lascia significativamente cadere in mare il libro che l’anarchico Schicchi gli ha consegnato durante il viaggio, a sancire il suo rifiuto per ogni forma di violenza, la sua volontà di essere “solo come un emigrante, in cerca di lavoro, casa, di rispetto”77.
La prospettiva di chi guarda e vive il passaggio ad un nuovo spazio definisce e ridefinisce i contorni della realtà, quella che ha lasciato e quella a cui va incontro. La Tunisia non è per Petro un luogo neutro e nemmeno lo è la Sicilia. Allo stesso modo la terra di partenza e la Milano dell’arrivo vengono ridiscusse nell’esperienza
73 Non a caso il capitolo finale reca l’epigrafe virgiliana Longa tibi exilia et vastum maris aequor arandum (Aen. II 780) che permette di associare la Sicilia in preda all’alba fascista ad una Ilio in rovina e Petro in fuga all’eroe costretto a cercare una nuova terra. 74 Nottetempo, casa per casa, p. 752. Nell’intervista con Gambaro (F. Gambaro, V. Consolo, op. cit., p. 102) Consolo evidenzia l’importanza degli scambi tra le due rive del Mediterraneo, proprio a partire della vicenda degli italiani emigrati, perché essi permettono un arricchimento culturale e letterario. 75 Nottetempo, casa per casa, pp. 753-754. A proposito della comunità italiana in Tunisia si veda lo studio di Marinette Pendola (Gli italiani di Tunisia. Storia di una comunità (XIX-XX secolo), Ed. Umbra, “I Quaderni del Museo dell’emigrazione”, Foligno, 2007), curatrice anche del sito www.italianiditunisia.com, denso di informazioni storiche. 76 Nottetempo, casa per casa, p. 755. 77 Ibidem.
di migrazione che conduce i meridionali, negli anni del miracolo economico, alla volta del Nord. Come accade, d’altronde, allo stesso Consolo che, sebbene non si muova per fame ma per realizzazione intellettuale, sperimenta il passaggio, vive una ridefinizione dei luoghi. L’insistenza dell’autore sulla presenza significativa degli italiani in Maghreb e sugli innumerevoli scambi avvenuti tra l’una e l’altra riva del mare fin dal Medioevo va considerata in relazione al suo interesse per quell’emigrazione africana in Italia che ha avuto origine negli anni Sessanta e che non si è più arrestata. Le riflessioni a tal proposito sono estremamente lucide e inquadrano precocemente la questione. I primi lavoratori tunisini, forniti del semplice passaporto con il visto turistico e sprovvisti di quell’autorizzazione che permetteva un regolare contratto di lavoro, giungevano in Sicilia nel 1968. La presenza di questi primi immigrati, costretti a ritornare in patria alla scadenza del visto turistico, rispondeva alla domanda di lavoro a buon mercato da parte di proprietari terrieri e di armatori, per i quali reclutare questa manodopera e sfruttarne la condizione abusiva era senza dubbio un vantaggio. Ai primi immigrati si aggiunsero allora parenti e amici e il fenomeno si allargò78. “L’emigrazione in Italia dei poveri del Terzo Mondo”79 ha inizio a Mazara, proprio lì dove il 17 giugno 827 – ricorda Consolo citando Amari – sbarcavano i musulmani, città splendida e prestigiosa secondo il geografo Idrisi80. A distanza di secoli, scomparsa la bellezza del passato, dopo che miseria e crollo avevano generato quell’altra migrazione, “di pescatori, muratori, artigiani, contadini di là dal mare, a La Goulette di Tunisi, nelle campagne di Soliman, di Sousse, di Biserta”81, il miracolo economico degli anni Sessanta attivava di nuovo la rotta dal Nord Africa82.
78 Sul fenomeno si veda A. Cusumano, Il ritorno infelice, Sellerio, Palermo 1978. Consolo lo cita in diverse occasioni, ad esempio, Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, Di qua dal faro, p. 1197. 79 L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 865. 80 Ivi, p. 864. 81 Ivi, p. 865. 82 Ibidem. Si veda anche Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, in Di qua dal faro, pp. 1197-1198. Molti gli articoli sul caso di Mazara, ad esempio I guasti del miracolo, cit.; Morte per acqua, cit; “Ci hanno dato la civiltà”, cit. Ancora precedente l’articolo uscito su “Sans frontières” nel 1980 che si sofferma sulla storia di Mazara prima di concentrarsi sulla quarta guerra punica o guerra
L’inversione di rotta, di cui Consolo evidenzia la specularità rispetto a quella italiana, va a riempire i vuoti lasciati dall’altro flusso migratorio, quello dei meridionali verso il Nord, e, anche se il caso di Mazara ha una sua indiscussa esemplarità, il fenomeno, come si è detto, già all’origine riguarda un po’ tutto il trapanese: una terra che ha più di un tratto in comune con la regione di partenza83. Ma mentre, accennando alla somiglianza geografica e culturale delle due rive del Mediterraneo, riporta l’attenzione sulla vicinanza tra i popoli e sui risvolti positivi dello scambio del passato, Consolo lascia emergere la stortura del presente e individua in questa nuova migrazione l’inizio di una lunga serie di episodi di xenofobia e persecuzione84. Gli immigrati maghrebini, infatti, a Mazara in maniera significativa, ma anche altrove, divennero presto oggetto di sfruttamento, divennero strumento di speculazione politica, furono vittime di razzismo, caccia, di rimpatrio coatto. Nel 1999, in Di qua dal faro Consolo già lamenta l’assenza di previsioni, progettazioni, di accordi tra governi85. La vicenda dei tunisini del trapanese e quella di tutti coloro che hanno attraversato e attraversano le acque del Mediterraneo – ma in alcune pagine il discorso si estende al mondo intero – alla ricerca di una nuova vita sono parte di un’unica drammatica storia scandita dalle tragedie quotidiane di corpi senza vita86.
del pesce i cui protagonisti erano proprio i tunisini immigrati della casbah: Quatrième guerre punique, in “Sans frontières”, 30 settembre 1980. 83 Alla somiglianza tra Italia meridionale e Nord Africa Consolo fa riferimento in“Ci hanno dato la civiltà”, cit.. Sulla questione anche un articolo del 1981, Immigration africaine en Italie (“Sans frontières”, 3 gennaio 1981): l’Italia è la prima tappa dei migranti per necessità geografiche ma anche perché è una terra non veramente straniera. 84 L’olivo e l’olivastro, p. 865; Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, in Di qua dal faro, p. 1197. Nel precedente I guasti del miracolo (cit.) Consolo rileva lo scandalo del dopo terremoto di Mazara (7 giugno 1981): ai tunisini vengono negate le tende, perché stranieri e perché non votanti e quindi ininfluenti nelle imminenti elezioni regionali. 85 Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, in Di qua dal faro, pp. 1197-1198. 86 Uomini sotto il sole, in Di qua dal faro, p. 1202. In particolare l’espressione “d’altri, scoperti, gettati in pasto ai pescecani” allude ad un episodio specifico, già tema del racconto Memoriale di Basilio Archita (Le pietre di Pantalica, pp. 639-646): nel maggio 1984, l’equipaggio della nave Garyfallia, che al comando di Antonis Plytzanopoulos era salpata dal porto di Mombasa da poche ore, si rese colpevole della morte, in mare aperto, proprio in pasto ai
L’ombra del mito antico si affaccia a rappresentare il destino dei migranti: essi ripetono l’esilio di Ulisse, ma soprattutto sono Enea in fuga da una terra in fiamme, oppure sono Troiane, fatte schiave e costrette ad allontanarsi dalla propria patria87.
La condizione degli esseri umani nel mare nostrum sembra così trovare una sintesi nella citazione da Braudel – “in tutto il Mediterraneo l’uomo è cacciato, rinchiuso, venduto, torturato”88–, originariamente riferita all’età di Filippo II. Ma ancor di più i versi eliotiani di Morte per acqua, che ritornano con frequenza sorprendente nei testi giornalistici e nelle prove narrative, riescono a parlare della realtà contemporanea. Già in Retablo l’episodio in cui la statua dell’efebo di Mozia si perde nel mare suscita la riflessione su un’altra perdita, che è ben più grave, quella delle vite umane che in ogni tempo si sono spente e si spengono nell’acqua, “sciolte nelle ossa” come Phlebas il fenicio89. In L’olivo e l’olivastro la citazione si lega esplicitamente alla memoria di un fatto di cronaca: nel 1981 il giovane Bugawi, vittima del naufragio del Ben Hur di Mazara, rimane in fondo al mare e “una corrente sottomarina / gli spolpò le
 pescecani, di un gruppo di clandestini. I migranti non vengono sacrificati solo nel Mediterraneo: la vicenda, infatti, come ricorda anche la voce narrante del racconto, il siciliano Basilio Archita, si svolge al largo delle coste del Kenia. I responsabili sono un “manipolo di orribili greci, dai denti guasti e le braccia troppo corte, mostri assetati di sangue e di violenza” (S. Giovanardi, Imbroglio siciliano, in “La Repubblica”, 2 novembre 1988; Id., Le pietre di Pantalica, in S. Zappulla Muscarà, Narratori siciliani del secondo dopoguerra, cit., pp. 179-182), insomma non hanno niente a che fare con i valori dell’antica Grecia. E anche la citazione di Kavafis, in bocca ad uno di loro, stride nel confronto con il terribile delitto. 87 Gli ultimi disperati del canale di Sicilia, cit., o in I muri d’Europa, cit., p. 25. Entrambi i testi si aprono con citazione dalle Troiane di Euripide (vv. 45-47) e dall’Eneide di Virgilio (II 707-710). 88 Ad esempio a conclusione di Il ponte sul canale di Sicilia, in Di qua dal faro, p. 1198; Il mare, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, p. 222; Gli ultimi disperati del canale di Sicilia, cit.; I muri d’Europa, cit., p. 30; nel discorso al convegno per Psichiatria democratica, Il Mediterraneo tra illusione e realtà, integrazione e conflitto nella storia e in letteratura, cit. La citazione è tratta da F. Braudel, Civiltà e imperi del Mediterraneo nell’età di Filippo II (F. Braudel, Civiltà e imperi del Mediterraneo nell’età di Filippo II, cit., pp. 981-982). 89 Retablo, p. 453.
ossa in sussurri”90. Ma anche i naufraghi di Scoglitti91 sono Phlebas il fenicio, e lo sono tutti i morti del Mediterraneo, tutti quelli che le carrette stracariche e le responsabilità umane hanno lasciato affogare92. Dal 2002 in poi Consolo interviene in maniera decisa e con la consueta indignazione sull’intensificarsi del fenomeno migratorio e sulle responsabilità della politica. Già un testo del ‘90 evidenzia l’ampliamento smisurato del braccio di mare tra Sicilia e Nord Africa, ovvero, la distanza economica creatasi tra i due mondi93. Ancora di più gli articoli successivi, suscitati in particolare dalla legge Bossi Fini, si concentrano sul contrasto evidentissimo, soprattutto a Lampedusa e nelle altre Pelasgie, tra l’opulenza del turismo nella natura incontaminata e la disperazione dell’approdo dei migranti94. Il procedimento antifrastico con cui Consolo si finge sostenitore delle ragioni dei ricchi vacanzieri contro gli sbarchi invadenti degli stranieri evidenzia lo stridere dei due mondi: “Ma lì, a Lampedusa, inopinatamente vi giungono anche, mannaggia, gli emigranti clandestini”95. Così la bella Lampedusa diventa nuovamente scenario di guerra contro l’infedele, come nel poema ariostesco. Se la Lipadusa del Furioso, “piena d’umil mortelle e di ginepri / ioconda solitudi
90 L’episodio è rievocato, con citazione da Eliot, in L’olivo e l’olivastro, pp. 865-866. Nel giugno del 1981 appena dopo il terremoto che aveva colpito Mazara, gli armatori ebbero fretta di rimandare in acqua le navi. Nel naufragio del Ben Hur morirono cinque mazaresi e due tunisini. L’identità di questi rimase ignota per diversi giorni: un indizio della condizione di sfruttamento e illegalità in cui lavoravano gli stranieri. Sullo stesso episodio, sempre con riferimento a Phlebas il fenicio, si veda il già citato Morte per acqua, cit., o “Ci hanno dato la civiltà”, cit. 91 Dedicato ai morti per acqua, in “L’Unità”, 29 settembre 2002. La citazione dei versi di Eliot chiude l’articolo e, che mi risulti, è l’unico caso in cui il passo è riportato per intero. Consolo si riferisce a quanto avvenuto il 24 settembre 2002: uno scafista abbandona a 300 metri dalla spiaggia di Scoglitti il suo carico di migranti; le onde impediscono l’approdo, muoiono 14 persone. 92 Gli ultimi disperati del canale di Sicilia, cit., o in I muri d’Europa, cit., p. 29. Meno esplicito il riferimento a Eliot in Immigrati avanzi del mare, in “L’Unità”, 18 giugno 2003, dove è l’aggettivo “spolpato” (“qualche corpo gonfio o spolpato finisce nelle reti dei pescatori”) che allude a Phlebas il fenicio. 93 Cronache di poveri venditori di strada, cit. 94 Il mondo di Bossi Fini stupido e spietato, in “L’Unità”, 29 agosto 2002. 95 Ibidem.
ne e remota / a cervi, a daini, a caprioli, a lepri”96, ospita il triplice duello di Orlando, Brandimarte e Oliviero contro i saracini Gradasso, Agramante e Sobrino, nel Duemila l’isola, divenuta da “remoto scoglio”, “meta ambitissima del turismo esclusivo”, è luogo d’approdo di pescherecci e gommoni che rovesciano il loro carico di clandestini: “i nuovi turchi, i nuovi invasori saracini”97. E – ancora è dominante l’antifrasi –, se non ci sono gli antichi paladini a combatterli e neppure le navi militari auspicate da Bossi, c’è però il mare “quel fascinoso mare azzurro e trasparente che d’improvviso s’infuria e travolge ogni gommone o peschereccio”98. Tanto più assurde si rivelano le leggi per gestire gli arrivi e, se già prima della Bossi Fini, Consolo lamentava la violazione sistematica dei diritti dell’uomo, dopo il 2002 è ancora più duro. Bersaglio polemico sono le nuove normative, più rigide di quelle previste dalla legge Martelli o dalla Turco-Napolitano: le nuove disposizioni prevedono che le carrette siano bloccate in acque extraterritoriali, “forse anche speronate e affondate. Con tutto il loro carico umano”99. Bersaglio polemico sono i centri di prima accoglienza che – scrive – non meriterebbero questo nome, perché piuttosto di lager si tratta, luoghi atroci, di violenza e umiliazione100. Bersaglio polemico è la diffusione di sentimenti xenofobi, suscitati dalla politica nella mentalità comune, ben rappresentata dall’io narrante del racconto eponimo di La mia isola è Las Vegas che invoca la costruzione di muri d’acciaio per arrestare la marea dei migranti101. In quest’ottica di critica alla nuova legge e all’inadempienza del dovere morale verso i migranti va letta la netta opposizione di Consolo al progetto di un museo della migrazione a Lampedusa, promosso nel 2004 dalla deputata regionale dell’Udc Giusy Savarino. A lei l’autore si rivolge pubblicamente dalle pagine di “La
96 Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, XL 45 vv. 3-4. Il passo è ricordato da Consolo in Lampedusa è l’ora delle iene, “L’Unità”, 28 giugno 2003. Ma si veda anche Isole dolci del dio, cit., pp. 33-35. 97 Lampedusa è l’ora delle iene, cit. 98 Ibidem. 99 Il mondo di Bossi Fini stupido e spietato, cit. 100 Ibidem ma anche Immigrati avanzi del mare, cit. 101 La mia isola è Las Vegas, in La mia isola è Las Vegas, p. 217.
Repubblica”, accusando l’ipocrisia profonda di una tale iniziativa102 e riflettendo su quanto sia irrimediabilmente compromessa l’identità dello spazio mediterraneo. Che cosa rimane del mare di miti e storia? Che cosa della mirabile convivenza tra culture diverse? Il monito dei reperti archeologici, delle narrazioni risulta poca cosa di fronte al mutamento dello sguardo collettivo sancito da leggi xenofobe e lager mascherati da centri di accoglienza: il mare si è fatto frontiera, confine, che gli altri, gli stranieri, non devono superare. Ed è contemporaneamente cimitero, spazio del sacrificio, della tragedia. Perciò il progetto di un museo a Lampedusa, l’isoletta dell’ariostesca lotta contro l’infedele, è, per Consolo, strumento di una retorica ipocrita, che non è giusto appoggiare: che senso avrebbe un monumento all’emigrazione, quando proprio i migranti vengono combattuti, respinti, lasciati morire in mare? Ma, d’altra parte, è il mondo intero ad aver subito una metamorfosi: si è mutato agli occhi dell’autore in un “im-mondo”, ovvero negazione di se stesso, perché preda della follia. La ripetizione dell’aggettivo “nostro”, associato sia allo spazio stravolto che alla massa di cadaveri, assume, nel testo in versi Frammento, toni accusatori, richiamando gli esseri umani alle proprie responsabilità nei confronti della morte di innocenti.

Nostri questi morti dissolti
nelle fiamme celesti,
questi morti sepolti
sotto tumuli infernali,
nostre le carovane d’innocenti
sopra tell di ceneri e di pianti.
Nostro questo mondo di follia.
 Quest’im-mondo che s’avvia…
103

102 Solo un monumento per gli immigrati, in “La Repubblica”, 21 agosto 2004. Sulla questione Consolo si era già espresso qualche giorno prima: Perché non voglio quel museo, in “La Repubblica”, 19 agosto 2004. 103 Frammento, in Per una Carta “visiva” dei Diritti civili, Viennepierre, Milano 2001, anche in “Microprovincia”, 48, gennaio-dicembre 2010, p. 5.

Il Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, Marinai ignoti, perduti (e nascosti).ean-Claude Izzo e Waciny Larej

NORA MOLL

Il Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo,
Marinai ignoti, perduti (e nascosti).ean-Claude Izzo e Waciny Larej
Sapienza Università di Roma
Hommes perdus d’autres ports, qui portez avec vous la conscience du monde Louis Brauquier O Mediterraneo, doce, sem mistérico, classico, ummar par bater De incontro a esplanadas olhadas de jardins próximos
por estátuas brancas! Alvaro de Campos/Fernando Pessoa 1

Narrare il Mediterraneo, e rappresentarlo in forma saggistica, significa da sempre intrecciare una pluralità di voci e mettere in armonia sonorità provenienti da aree culturali diverse, da civiltà che si sono mescolate nel corso dei secoli sviluppando un’immagine di sé aperta, ibrida, fluida. La frontiera liquida del mare racchiuso da tre continenti, l’Europa, l’Africa e l’Asia, è uno spazio-dimezzo che allo stesso tempo unisce, mette in comunicazione, armonizza i contrasti, e divide, diventa barriera invalicabile, cimitero di speranze e di vite umane. Se a partire dalla prospettiva della longue durée in riferimento all’area mediterranea prevale l’idea di un dinamismo culturale portatore di innovazione e di originalità, di una traduzione tra le culture senza la quale la stessa civiltà europea sarebbe privata delle sue fondamenta, uno sguardo rapido sulla realtà attuale di questo grande lago fa venire lo sconforto: tra l’inquinamento e la tratta di migranti sans papiers, tra il deturpamento delle coste e il decadimento delle antiche città portuali, dal Mediterraneo provengono ora molte dissonanze,con punte acute di disperazione spesso soffocate nel mare, forse più grande,della comunicazione di massa. Che è per lo più impegnata ad abbozzare maldestramente e furbescamente, a sua volta, una narrazione del Mediterraneo all’ insegna del grande e ben sfruttabile tema dello “scontro tra le civiltà”.Fortunatamente, nella parola letteraria si scoprono ancora oggi innumerevoli aspetti che disegnano un Mediterraneo diverso e ben più complesso da quello veicolato dalla cultura di massa. In molti autori del XX e del XXI secolo provenienti da quella “rete interletteraria” tricontinentale 2, il discorso su questa grande regione terracquea viene condotto su due binari: coniugando la dimensione storica con la rappresentazione narrativa del presente, essi volgono lo sguardo sul mare che cancella ogni traccia del passato e al contempo traducono il peso del territorio retrostante, sul quale sono inscritte, pietrificate, le manifestazioni di secoli e millenni di storia. Dall’apocalisse culturale di Stefano D’Arrigo alla desolazione estraniante ma fascinosa di Albert Camus e alla sensualità carnale di Jean Giono, per fare solo alcuni esempi, i risultati di quelle che sono delle vere e proprie poetiche mediterranee sono diversi e sfaccettati; sempre complessi e non facilmente riassumibili in un discorso logico, cartesiano e binario, dialettico magari ma unidirezionale. Del resto, come insegna Édouard Glissant, dalla sua prospettiva caraibica, le poetiche fondate sulla diversità sono portatrici di imprevedibilità,inerente al processo di creolizzazione, di mescolanze che procedono liberamente per vie mai percorse prima, che ci costringono ad abbandonare tali schemi logici, favorendo piuttosto un pensiero polifonico, contrappuntistico 3. Confrontandosi con questo mare interno, fenici, greci, siriani, egizi, romani,arabi e molte altre civiltà e tanti popoli ancora, hanno sviluppato la capacità di efinire sé stessi, nel confronto con gli altri, nello scambio di conquiste materiali e scientifiche, di merci e di beni, nel disegno di cartine nautiche come rappresentazioni del proprio mondo, e della propria cosmovisión 4. Tali espressioni materiali della cultura mediterranea non sono, tuttavia, mai state disgiunte dallo sforzo di narrare la propria comunità, abbracciando a partire dal contesto ristretto della singola Heimat quello più grande della regione d’appartenenza. Nella più importante e fertile di tali foundational fictions, l’Odissea, vi è infatti lo sforzo, collettivo ed epico, di trasformare lo spazio concreto attraversato dal suo protagonista in uno immaginario, mitico, uno sforzo che è allo stesso tempo mitopoietico e mitologico 5. In altre parole, il secondo poema omerico (ma lo stesso vale anche per il primo, l’Iliade) è allo stesso tempo un motore creatore di miti e di figure mitiche (la maga Circe, Calipso, lo stesso Odisseo, Polifemo e molti altri ancora), e un grande contenitore di miti, religiosi ed eziologici, già esistenti, una sorta di archivio che permette di salvare un patrimonio mitologico e di consegnarlo alle future generazioni 6. Una creazione mitica, poetica e narrativa di uno spazio, reale e immaginario, che ha conosciuto una immensa fortuna di rielaborazioni e di riscritture dentro e fuori dal suo contesto di provenienza,parallelamente alla persistenza dell’epos odissaico nella cultura orale mediterranea: infatti, sappiamo che ancora oggi circolano narrazioni epiche popolari che hanno come protagonista degli Odissei, pur portando nomi diversi 7.Se nell’Iliade Odisseo era figura di guerriero (pur umanamente ontrovoglia,dapprincipio troppo attaccato alla sua famiglia e ai suoi beni per accettare la ottomissione ad una superiore “ragion di Stato” o ad una astratta volontà divina),ma anche di sapiente artefice (vedi il suo ruolo di artifex del piano per la conquista di Troia), nell’Odissea egli si trasforma in viaggiatore, in marinaio (pur mantenendo come dote essenziale la “phronesis”): diventa Capitano Ulisse, dirla con Alberto Savinio 8, che non solo ha il desiderio di ritornare alla sua Itaca, ma anche la responsabilità di riportare a casa i suoi compagni. Odisseo,così come ci è stato tramandato nel secondo poema omerico, è anzi l’archetipo della figura del marinaio – se per marinaio intendiamo “l’uomo di mare” (ted.Seemann) senza distinzione di sorta tra gradi e gerarchie – una figura che tanto successo ha conosciuto nella letteratura europea e mondiale, dove tale archetipo è però affiancato da quello orientale di Sindbad 9. Da Coleridge a Conrad, da Melville a Coloane, da Baudelaire a London, i marinai sono figure di uomini che appartengono al mare, che definiscono la propria identità a partire da e attraverso di esso. Uomini che vivono ai margini del consorzio umano, e che proprio in virtù di tale liminarità sociale mettono in comunicazione comunità differenti dal punto di vista etnico e geografico-spaziale. Il marinaio, per via della sua precarietà sociale, è inoltre in contatto con i veri e propri emarginati, come la delinquenza portuale e le prostitute. La sua proverbiale infedeltà, già odissaica, è contrapposta alla tensione psicologica verso un punto fermo, una famiglia, una Penelope che lo attende; una oscillazione che è fonte di inquietudine, infelicità, di conflitti. Il suo essere sempre in viaggio, o tra un viaggio e l’altro, la sua erranza marina-terrestre, ne fa del resto il prototipo dell’ansia profondamente umana verso la conoscenza: una conoscenza del mondo di cui egli è portatore e narratore 10 e una conoscenza della complessa varietà umana che passa attraverso l’esperienza del mare, della sua bellezza e dei suoi pericoli. Come ricorda Eric Leed nel suo magistrale studio sulla letteratura del viaggio, il concetto di esperienza e quello di erranza sono profondamente connessi, se solo prestiamo attenzione all’etimologia del termine tedesco Erfahrung (esperienza autentica, diretta, tratta dal vissuto), derivato dall’antico tedesco irfaran (viaggiare, errare)11. Una parola alla quale si ricollega però etimologicamente anche la forma verbale tedesca (sich) irren (sbagliare), così come del resto vi è una assonanza significativa e parentela derivativa tra l’italiano errore ed errare/erranza, il che ci ricorda che l’esperienza è anche sempre (considerata oltre che di fatto) foriera di errori; e nel caso del marinaio la sovrabbondanza di esperienza porta quasi inevitabilmente verso le zone oscure della illegalità, della immoralità, della malattia, e infine anche della morte (affrontata con ogni nuova partenza, se è vero che nell’ immaginario popolare partire equivale a morire). Pur constatando la grande fertilità letteraria del modello umano del marinaio – che in ambito mediterraneo ricollega in una circolarità ermeneutica la letteratura,e la cultura, contemporanea con quella antica – non lo si può e si deve definire tout court come un tema letterario 12. Piuttosto, esistono diversi complessi tematici che si irradiano a partire da tale figura e prototipo umano, senza escludere però che, in rari casi, essa diventi il modus principale con cui tali complessi tematici si manifestano: e solo in quel caso si può parlare a ragione del “tema del marinaio”. Tra i complessi tematici, a cui in parte ho già accennato, si annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide (esterne), la libertà, la vita come “navigatio”e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. Come è stato giustamente ribadito da Mario Domenichelli, lo stesso Odisseo (omerico e ultraomerico) non è propriamente un tema, bensì un personaggio letterario nel quale si accentra una serie di temi, parzialmente coincidenti con quelli appena menzionati, laddove la nozione di tema, secondo lo studioso, richiederebbe sempre un grado maggiore di astrazione 13. Sottolineando altresì l’aspetto “dinamico” del tema, Domenichelli si oppone, infatti, sia a definizioni come quella di Cesare Segre, che lo limitano all’idea di «unità di significato stereotipe ricorrenti in un testo o gruppo di testi», sia alla tentazione, a tutt’oggi alquanto diffusa, di assegnare il tema esclusivamente alla dimensione del contenuto, separandolo dagli aspetti formali e ntroducendo implicitamente un giudizio di valore negativo sull’opportunità di studiare il “materiale di riempimento”, o Stoff, di un testo, sia sul piano sincronico che su quello diacronico 14. Il suo dinamismo caleidoscopico ne farebbe invece una “forma formante” che estetizza l’esperienza del mondo, un «interfaccia tra esperienza ed esperienza estetica, tra vita e letteratura»15. All’importanza,paragonata da Domenichelli a quella ricoperta dal tema o dal Leitmotiv musicali, che esso assume all’interno del singolo testo letterario, si aggiunge inoltre come importante plus-valore, sul quale si concentrano gli studi comparatistici,il suo ruolo esercitato a livello diacronico e intertestuale, sottolineando che «temi, topoi, articolazioni di motivo sono marche di identità e di appartenenza dell’opera, che concorrono a formare la tradizione e l’identità della tribù»16. Il tema letterario, insomma, non sarebbe altro che una “forma dell’esperienza”dall’importanza strutturale e strutturante per il singolo testo – e, ggiungerei, fondamentale per la comprensione dell’opera complessiva e della poetica di un autore – ma anche una via maestra per accedere alla comprensione delle costanti culturali e delle specificità identitarie di una collettività o di una civiltà (quella europea, nel caso analizzato da Domenichelli). La tematologia, potremmo quindi riassumere, nella sua rivisitazione critica e nella strenua difesa dei suoi assunti teorico-metodologici, si profila quindi come una possibile modulazione sia dell’imagologia letteraria che della geocritica – annoverata dalla comparatistica francese tra le aree di ricerca più innovative emerse in anni recenti 17 – oltre che come nesso e ponte tra la comparatistica letteraria e gli studi culturali, di più recente sviluppo e dalla metodologia spesso assai incerta.D’altronde, si dirà, chiunque abbia una pur vaga conoscenza dell’opera di E.R. Curtius, Europäische Literatur und lateinisches Mittelalter (1948)sarà poi tanto stupito dall’idea che la tematologia possa essere usata come chiave metodologica degli studi europei. Difatti, già in Curtius lo studio dei temi, o meglio dei topoi letterari è posto all’insegna della comprensione e della canonizzazione della modernità letteraria europea, ricollegata alle sue radici tardolatine esaltate nel loro ruolo di trait d’union tra antichità greco-latina e odernità.Tuttavia, a questa e a tante altre creazioni ingegnose e mirabilmente erudite del “mito” monoculturale della letteratura europea 19 andrebbe giustapposta – per correzione e non per contrapposizione – l’idea di una base interculturale della stessa letteratura europea, data dal confronto e dalla mescolanza di culture/civiltà diverse, dalla traduzione e dall’adattamento di generi, forme, temi,stili provenienti anche dal suo esterno, dalla compenetrazione dell’immaginario culturale occidentale con quello orientale, dall’idea che la stessa antichità greca affondi le sue radici nella (non) lontana Africa, oltre che in Asia 20. Usare quindi la tematologia come strumento per lo studio dell’interculturalità mediterranea – nonché per il collegamento geocritico e interculturale del Mediterraneo con altre aree culturali come quella dei Caraibi – sembra una delle possibili vie percorribili al fine di evitare lo slittamento della pur evidente e molto praticata europeità degli studi letterari verso un eurocentrismo che, con altrettanta evidenza, sembrerebbe ormai necessario superare 21. In questo testo, la triangolazione italo-franco-algerina della ripresa della figura letteraria del marinaio è posta appunto sotto tale insegna, ma viene usata anche con l’obiettivo, di derivazione imagologica e geocritica, di mostrare le diverse modulazioni di un discorso dall’interno e sul Mediterraneo che si incrocia con la rielaborazione della figura del marinaio mediterraneo, nonché con quello di creare una, pur ristretta, esemplificazione delle “forme formanti” che essa può assumere. I marinai che appaiono nelle opere di Jean-Claude Izzo, di Vincenzo Consolo e di Waciny Larej occupano,difatti, una posizione tematico-formale dall’importanza via via decrescente,dal tema letterario vero e proprio (Izzo), al Leitmotiv coniugato con un uso originale dell’ekphrasis (Consolo), al semplice motivo (Larej), dalla ricorrenza meno estensiva e solo debolmente strutturante. Quello che è stato, inoltre, un importante stimolo, per così dire immaginativo, nel trattare questo argomento,era l’idea che così come il marinaio, nella realtà mediterranea (ma non solo) è ed è sempre stata una figura capace di mettere in contatto e di tradurre culture diverse, il tema, Leitmotiv e motivo del marinaio permette un interessante confronto tra opere peraltro molto differenti, sebbene prodotte nello stesso arco di tempo, ma suscettibili di apparire sotto una luce nuova all’ interno di tale intreccio comparatistico-ermeneutico.Il romanzo che rappresenta la prima fascia dell’intreccio-treccia è intitolato Les marins perdus, e fu pubblicato in Francia nel 199722. Il suo autore, il marsigliese di origini italiane Jean-Claude Izzo, prematuramente scomparso nel 2000, si era imposto già precedentemente all’attenzione del pubblico francese con la trilogia noir Casino totale, Chourmo e Solea, ambientata come il resto della sua opera a Marsiglia 23.L’amore per la sua città – che traspare anche in Marinai perduti attraverso una lunga serie di descrizioni del suo porto e delle sue vie, delle indicazioni particolareggiate su locali e bistrot e i piatti tipici che vi vengono serviti – nonché per la cultura mediterranea in generale, sono due punti focali dell’opera di Izzo, dei suoi veri e propri miti personali 24. Dalle prime pagine di Marinai perduti, l’occhio del narratore si sofferma sulla sua bellezza, collegata con un momento significativo della gioventù di uno dei marinai protagonisti del romanzo, nonché con aspetti che sfumano nel mito,capace di far sentire la suo eco attraverso secoli e millenni, frammento di un immaginario culturale che viene rinnovato costantemente nell’immaginario del singolo:Anche a Diamantis piaceva quella città. L’aveva amata fin dalla prima volta che vi era sbarcato. Aveva appena vent’anni allora. Era mozzo a bordo dell’Ecuador, un vecchio cargo arrugginito che non si avventurava mai al largo di Gibilterra. Quel giorno se lo ricordava benissimo. L’Ecuador aveva doppiato l’arcipelago del Riou. Poi, superate le isole del Frioul,l’insenatura gli si era spalancata di fronte. Quasi una linea netta di luce rosata che separava l’azzurro del cielo dall’azzurro del mare. Ne era rimasto come abbagliato. Marsiglia, aveva pensato allora, è una donna che si offre a chi arriva dal mare. L’aveva perfino annotato sul giornale di bordo. Senza sapere che stava citando il mito fondatore della città: la leggenda di Gyptis, principessa ligure che si diede a Protis, marinaio francese, la notte in cui questi entrò nel porto. Da allora Diamantis aveva perso il conto degli scali 25.Il mito fondatore marsigliese di Gyptis e Protis, insieme alla descrizione del porto con immagini sensuali e una metafora erotica, rappresenta un importante nucleo immaginativo e semantico per il romanzo di Izzo, a partire dal quale si dipana tutta la sua trama nelle sue singole fasce narrative: l’arrivo del marinaio,la donna che gli si dona, la bellezza del mare e del porto. Tuttavia, la poesia e la valenza erotica dell’episodio mitico e dell’immagine della città sono rilegate al passato, alla giovinezza del marinaio greco Diamantis, dopo anni nuovamente approdato con la nave sulla quale è “secondo” al porto di Marsiglia, per non ripartire più. Difatti, la rappresentazione dello stesso porto, questa volta visto da terra e non dal mare, con cui si apre il romanzo, contrasta decisamente con i colori, il tempo atmosferico e la metaforicità del passo appena citato:Marsiglia quel mattino aveva colori da mare del Nord. […] Il cielo minacciava tempesta e, in lontananza, le isole del Frioul non erano che una macchia scura. A stento si distingueva l’orizzonte. Proprio un giorno senza futuro, pensò Diamantis. Attraccati, relegati laggiù, in fondo ai sei chilometri della diga del Largo. Lontani da tutto. Senza niente da fare. E senza un soldo. Ad aspettare l’ipotetico acquirente di quel sfottuto cargo 26. Diamantis, insieme al capitano libanese Abdul Aziz e un marinaio semplice,il giovane turco Nedim, sono degli uomini di mare costretti all’immobilità, spinti dalla difficile situazione legale della loro nave, l’Aldébaran (bloccata dal tribunale a garanzia dei debiti contratti dall’armatore) in una trappola, una empasse che è allo stesso tempo economica e psicologica. Infatti, nell’impossibilità di abbandonare la nave, sulla quale continuano a vivere consumando gli avanzi delle loro provviste, nella difficoltà di trovare un altro impiego e nel rifiuto di accettare l’indennizzo offertogli dal tribunale (come aveva fatto il resto della variopinta ciurma, dileguatasi dopo pochi giorni dall’attracco della nave), si traduce la situazione esistenziale in cui versano tutti e tre i personaggi. Una situazione di stallo, di vuoto («Non abbiamo più il mare di mezzo. E di colpo scopriamo il vuoto», p. 15), che li conduce alla rielaborazione del proprio passato,ai ricordi che lentamente essi si cominciano a scambiare, e che sono incentrati principalmente sulla loro scelta di diventare marinai, come anche sulle donne protagoniste della loro vita, durante i loro viaggi (le prostitute e le altre donne dei porti) come durante le brevi permanenze a casa (le fidanzate e le mogli,madri dei loro figli). Se la loro esistenza di marinai è posta all’insegna di un destino al quale non possono sfuggire, della scelta di una libertà alla quale non vogliono rinunciare («In mare, e soltanto lì, si sentiva libero. In mare non si sentiva né vivo né morto. Solo altrove. Un altrove in cui riusciva a trovare qualche buona ragione per essere se stesso. E gli bastava», p. 14), tale destino è allo stesso tempo la condanna ad una instabilità nei rapporti d’amore, arrivati in tutti i tre gli uomini a un momento di svolta: mentre Abdul Aziz sta per essere lasciato dalla moglie, che pur amandolo soffre troppo per via delle lunghe assenze del marito, Nedim prende coscienza della impossibilità di costruirsi un’esistenza con la giovane fidanzata, di rispondere alle attese della sua famiglia di scegliere un lavoro da sedentario. Diamantis, invece, separato da anni dalla moglie da cui ha avuto un figlio, è ora alla ricerca di un suo grande amore giovanile, una donna di origine marocchina conosciuta a Marsiglia vent’anni prima, da lui abbandonata in circostanze oscure, a causa di un intrico di paure e di incapacità che nel corso della narrazione riceve man mano delle delucidazioni.Infatti, la ricerca del suo antico amore da parte di Diamantis costituisce il motore del racconto nonché l’anello di congiunzione tra le varie vicende che si dispiegano intorno ai singoli personaggi. Nedim si innamora di Lalla, una bella entraîneuse conosciuta in un locale del quartiere portuale, la quale è accompagnata da una quarantenne che si rivela essere Amina, la donna ricercata da Diamantis. Tirato dentro un inganno dalle due donne e dai proprietari del locale per il quale lavorano, Nedim chiede aiuto a Diamantis che entra così in contatto con l’entourage malavitoso delle due donne, assistendo infine all’uccisione di Amina da parte del suo compagno, un capo mafioso che l’aveva costretta a lavorare per lui. In un intrico noir, gestito alla perfezione da Izzo, esperto del genere, si narra infine anche la morte tragica di Nedim per mano di Abdul, l’arresto di questi e il salvataggio di Lalla, che in realtà è la figlia che Amina aveva avuto da Diamantis dopo essere stata da lui abbandonata. Diamantis, invece,trova in ultimo rifugio presso una donna marsigliese, una Calipso che gli offre il suo amore materno, e che si prende cura anche della giovane Lalla. Quest’ultimo rimando ad una figura femminile di memoria omerica non è solo di tipo associativo. Diamantis, infatti, è collocato volutamente nell’orbita degli ulissidi, ed è egli stesso cosciente di essere un erede del mitico navigatore del Mediterraneo, così come suo padre, marinaio anche lui, si era identificato con questi. La sua passione per l’Odissea, che Diamantis legge al figlio durante i periodi a terra, si inscrive in un profondo amore per il Mediterraneo, fonte di continue riflessioni che egli annota sul suo diario di bordo. Diamantis colloca se stesso in quella narrazione continua che è il poema omerico, tentando di leggervi il significato della propria esistenza e il proprio futuro:[…] In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra, di bar in bar:… e Ulisse è sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza è nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo è di sicuro lì. […] I porti del Mediterraneo… sono delle strade. Strade per mare e per terra. Collegate.Strade e città. Grandi, piccole. Si tengono tutte per mano. Il Cairo e Marsiglia, Genova e Beirut, Istanbul e Tangeri, Tunisi e Napoli, Barcellona e Alessandria, Palermo e…»Ritrovò infine il pensiero che lo assillava, e le parole per esprimerlo.«In realtà ci vuole una motivazione personale per navigare sul Mediterraneo»27.Per Diamantis, l’Odissea non è tuttavia l’unica fonte per la re-interpretazione e la riflessione sul Mediterraneo. Come emerge da una serie di luoghi testuali,egli è un personaggio intellettualmente complesso ed autoriflessivo, un portavoce dei pensieri e delle ricerche dello stesso Izzo sull’argomento. Molte delle osservazioni di Diamantis sul suo mare sono di natura colta, e vanno ben al di là della narrazione delle proprie storie (pur presenti, come quelle intorno alle tempeste e ai naufragi vissuti durante la sua ventennale vita in mare), o della ripetizione ossessiva delle vicende odissaiche, così come è di natura erudita la sua passione per gli antichi peripli marini. Per di più, Izzo traduce nel suo personaggio principale la propria conoscenza degli scritti di Fernand Braudel e di Predrag Matvejevic´, due studiosi menzionati esplicitamente dall’autore in una postilla al suo romanzo. Di chiara ispirazione matvejeviciana sono, infatti, passaggi come il seguente: Diamantis rinunciò a rituffarsi nelle sue carte nautiche. Le riordinò accuratamente. Ma prese ancora un appunto: «Il Mediterraneo non è solo geografia. Non è solo storia. Ma è più di una semplice appartenenza»28.Sia per la sua natura odissaica che per le sue riflessioni e passioni colte,Diamantis è un uomo profondamente mediterraneo, che come marinaio ha del resto rinunciato a navigare su altri mari, scegliendo di lavorare su delle vecchie imbarcazioni, inadatte ad essere utilizzate per il commercio navale dell’oceano.Diversamente da lui, Abdul Aziz, il capitano dell’Aldébaran, è pervaso da aspirazioni diverse, ovvero da quella ultra-omerica di “prendere” altri mari, di misurarsi con il più vasto Oceano, con l’altrove immenso e imprevedibile, come emerge dalle parole con cui egli interrompe il discorso, prima citato, di Diamantis sul Mediterraneo:«Io… per me, sì, per me, il Mediterraneo… il mare… Per me il mare è bello solo più in là. Una volta passata Gibilterra. L’oceano…»«E qual è la sua motivazione personale?» domandò Lalla a Diamantis.«Trovare me stesso, credo».Pensava a una frase di suo padre. «Tutto è ambivalente nell’animo dell’uomo» diceva.«Ma i duplici valori cercano di ritrovarsi in un luogo in cui i contrari facciano un tutt’uno».«O, più esattamente, riunire in me stesso tutto ciò. Ci si perde a non sapere chi siamo».«L’oceano» lo interruppe Abdul alzando la voce.Non sapeva bene cosa dire. Voleva soltanto riprendere il ruolo di protagonista. Porca miseria! Che era? L’anarchia? Era lui il comandante della nave.. E ne aveva comandate tante altre. Avevano il dovere di ascoltarlo! Voleva raccontare il mare. Quello vero. L’avventura.Non quella pietosa del povero Ulisse imbrigliato nei fili che il Mediterraneo, brutta troia di un ragno, tesseva intorno agli uomini. Era Penelope, quella troia di un ragno. Gli aveva annodato un filo alla caviglia a quel poveraccio. Il filo che alla fine l’avrebbe riportato a casa. Nelle braccia di Circe, nel letto di Calipso, Ulisse era legato a Penelope. Al suo tran tran familiare. Alla vita domestica. Il mare partoriva delle donne ragno. Delle Penelopi. Delle Penelopi e delle Céphée.L’oceano, l’avventura.«Solo altrove il mare è bello» ripeté alzando la voce 29.Il desiderio del capitano dell’Aldébaran di andare oltre, di recidere i legami fisici con il suo mare e quelli sentimentali con la sua Penelope, equivale alla tensione autodistruttiva di cancellare parte della propria identità, ricercata invece da Diamantis nel mar Mediterraneo. Una necessità, quella di Diamantis, che egli riesce a sintetizzare davanti alla giovane Lalla, con delle parole che irritano profondamente Abdul, spinto invece a perdersi e a cancellare il proprio passato per via della grande delusione ricevuta dalla moglie e dall’incapacità di uscire fuori dal circolo vizioso della sua erranza in mare. Sono entrambi dei “marinai perduti” – come lo è anche il giovane Nedim che diventa addirittura vittima della momentanea violenza (auto)distruttiva da parte di Abdul – ma ognuno in modo diverso: Abdul, nella sua cieca disperazione e con l’omicidio da lui commesso si immette nel vicolo cieco dell’illegalità e viene incarcerato, mentre Diamantis giunge attraverso un malinconico ripiegamento sul proprio passato e su una storia amorosa rimasta aperta, nonché attraverso le sue riflessioni sul suo mare, ad una presa di coscienza dei propri errori e dei propri limiti, salvando infine se stesso, anche grazie all’aiuto (ancora una volta, e molto all’insegna del suo mitico antenato) di una donna. Un aiuto e un’apertura verso un possibile futuro che, però, porta i connotati mediterranei della città nella quale, questa volta volutamente, Diamantis si è perduto, gustandone i profumi e i sapori e registrando i suoi tanti colori, le sue tante varietà umane che vi si mescolano in un movimento sensuale e creativo, in un “caos mondo” pieno di luce e di musica 30.Marsiglia diviene così una sorta di specchio e riassunto urbano di quella cultura del mare che Diamantis (e con lui l’autore di Marinai perduti) ama profondamente, diviene un’utopia realizzabile una volta che si è trovati accesso al suo linguaggio segreto, che si diventa esperti delle lingue che i suoi abitanti vi parlano. Il discorso di Izzo, in apparenza tanto aderente al presente della cultura mediterranea (e non privo di denunce rivolte al suo degrado, come emerge dalle vicende legate ai pignoramenti di navi, e alla speculazione illecita da parte delle compagnie di assicurazioni tramite delle messe in scena di naufragi), in realtà usa il passato (storico e mitico) di quella cultura come pietra di paragone da tenere sempre in mente («Il mare, continuò Diamantis, non lo si scopre mai da soli, e non lo si vede solo con i propri occhi. Lo si guarda come altri lo hanno visto, attraverso immagini e racconti che ci hanno tramandato», p. 36), trovando così un’apertura verso il futuro. Il tema del marinaio – un tipo umano capace di “ridisegnare il mondo” (p. 32) attraverso la conoscenza/esperienza del mare e della vita – riceve così, al di là delle sue variazioni relative ai singoli personaggi protagonisti del romanzo e nei suoi risvolti noir, un significato più profondo,ossia quello di un’utopia tratta dal presente vissuto con piena adesione e con l’idea momentanea ma illuminante che «tutto è possibile»31. All’eterno presente di Izzo, con le sue diramazioni verso il futuro e il passato,fa da contrappunto lo scavo nel passato attuato da Vincenzo Consolo, autore dai timbri ben diversi, più vicini alla polifonia della musica barocca, alla quale l’autore siciliano si avvicina anche per l’idea di conferire la stessa importanza a stili e linguaggi diversi (oltre quello narrativo, quello giuridico, quello aggistico-documentario, nonché la traduzione verbale di quello figurativo), gestiti con abile tecnica di incastro e con rimandi impliciti a temi e motivi comuni. Nel suo romanzo Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, del 197632, Consolo alterna la narrazione vera e propria degli eventi legati alle rivolte di contadini e braccianti contro il potere dei feudatari, scatenatesi contemporaneamente all’arrivo dei garibaldini nel 1860, nonché quella di due scene che vedono al centro il barone Mandralisca e l’avvocato Giovanni Interdonato, entrambi favorevoli alla rivoluzione “dal basso” che aveva avuto un suo lontano preludio nei Vespri siciliani, a documenti politici e giuridici relativi agli stessi eventi, autentici o manipolati dallo stesso Consolo, a passaggi tratti da uno studio di malacologia, e infine alle trascrizioni di graffiti che i prigionieri politici, autori dei moti contadini, avevano lasciato inscritti sui muri del loro carcere sotterraneo. Ma più che approfondire la natura delle soluzioni linguistico-stilistiche de Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, la cui struttura “a chiocciola” riflette, come è stato sottolineato da Cesare Segre, la tensione irrisolta dei rapporti sociali sulla quale è incentrata la riscrittura di questo episodio della storia siciliana da parte di Consolo, vorrei focalizzare l’attenzione sul Leitmotiv dell’ignoto marinaio da cui questa è attraversata 33. Intanto, l’identificazione dell’uomo del Ritratto di Antonello da Messina – realmente acquistato dal barone Enrico Pirajno di Mandralisca di Cefalù da uno speziale dell’isola di Lipari e a tutt’oggi conservato nel Museo Mandralisca della località siciliana – con un marinaio, non è affatto senza importanza per lo scrittore, come emerge da un suo recente scritto 34.Come commento alle vicende storiche da lui riscritte con un intricato patchwork di testi stilisticamente e linguisticamente molto eterogenei, Consolo sceglie quindi un elemento extratestuale, un’opera figurativa realmente esistente e in quanto tale rimando alla valenza sovra- e metastorica dell’arte. La scelta di ritrarre con le sue parole il famoso dipinto, piegandone il significato verso un’interpretazione che non può più prescindere dall’idea che l’uomo raffigurato sia un marinaio, è quindi di fondamentale importanza per la comprensione del testo nel suo insieme. L’immagine del marinaio consoliano viene così ad occupare, come direbbe Lea Ritter Santini, «lo spazio intermedio fra valore iconico e valore verbale», perdendo così la sua «innocenza e la sua univocità visiva» a favore di una accrescimento semantico e la trasformazione in una nuova “figura dell’immaginario”35.Ma vediamo come lo scrittore siciliano descrive il dipinto di Antonello, nel momento in cui il barone toglie il panno che lo copre, per mostrare il suo nuovo acquisto agli invitati:Apparve la figura d’un uomo a mezzo busto. Da un fondo verde cupo, notturno, di lunga notte di paura e incomprensione, balzava avanti il viso luminoso. Un indumento scuro staccava il chiaro del forte collo dal busto e un copricapo a calotta, del colore del vestito, tagliava a mezzo la fronte. L’uomo era in quella giusta età in cui la ragione, uscita salva dal naufragio della giovinezza, s’è fatta lama d’acciaio, che diverrà sempre più lucida e tagliente nell’uso ininterrotto. L’ombra sul volto di una barba di due giorni faceva risaltare gli zigomi larghi, la perfetta, snella linea del naso terminante a punta, le labbra, lo sguardo. Le piccole, nere pupille scrutavano dagli angoli degli occhi e le labbra appena si stendevano in un sorriso. Tutta l’espressione di quel volto era fissata, per sempre, nell’increspatura sottile, mobile, fuggevole dell’ironia, velo sublime d’aspro pudore con cui gli esseri intelligenti coprono la pietà. Al di qua del lieve sorriso, quel volto sarebbe caduto nella distensione pesante della serietà e della cupezza, sull’orlo dell’astratta assenza per dolore, al di là, si sarebbe scomposto, deformato nella risata aperta, sarcastica, impietosa o nella meccanica liberatrice risata comune a tutti gli uomini.Il personaggio fissava tutti negli occhi, in qualsiasi parte essi si trovavano, con i suoi occhi piccoli e puntuti, sorrideva a ognuno di loro, ironicamente, e ognuno si sentì come a disagio 36.Fin dalle prime battute della descrizione ekphrastica, il volto dell’uomo raffigurato viene “letto” all’insegna di una vivida e luminosa intelligenza; è una luce che si staglia da un fondo cupo, associato alla “notte di paura e incomprensione” che gli fa da contesto e contrasto. La metafora del naufragio in relazione alla giovinezza, dalla quale l’uomo è ormai uscito, costituisce l’unico collegamento allusivo con la sua (presunta) professione, che passa invece in secondo piano rispetto alla interpretazione della espressione del suo sorriso. Un sorriso ironico, appena accennato, che mette in comunicazione occhi e labbra, è il principale tratto distintivo di quel volto, un tratto del quale si sottolinea però la sfuggevolezza,la precarietà, ma anche la singolarità e il disagio che suscita nell’ osservatore.Tra dolore e pietà, tra sarcasmo e risata aperta e folle, l’ironia del marinaio è come una freccia lanciata fuori dal dipinto, e fa di lui l’osservatore di chi osserva, trasforma l’oggetto del quadro in soggetto, in “personaggio”, come lo stesso narratore sottolinea. Del resto, tutti gli astanti percepiscono la presenza del marinaio come presenza materiale di un personaggio che li segue con lo sguardo; il marinaio diventa così protagonista della scena “da salotto”, tant’è vero che essa, e insieme il primo capitolo, si conclude con le seguenti attute:«Barone, a chi sorride quello là» […]. «Ai pazzi allegri come voi e come me, agli imbecilli!» rispose il Mandralisca»37.La presenza del marinaio del dipinto, venuto anch’esso dal mare, «nel suo presumibile percorso da una Messina, già di forte connessione storica, cancellata dai terremoti, a Lipari, isola-regno d’esistenza, di mito, a Cefalù approdo nella storia e nella cultura»38, è rafforzata da quella di un personaggio che nella fabula del romanzo consoliano ricopre un ruolo di primo piano. Si tratta dell’avvocato Interdonato, il quale nel primo capitolo appare nei panni di un (presunto) marinaio, che il barone Mandralisca incontra sulla nave che lo riporta a Cefalù.Mentre gli spiega la natura e l’origine della malattia di un cavatore di pietra pomice, che viaggia insieme a loro, il misterioso marinaio mostra al barone il suo volto dal sorriso ambiguo, un volto che questi ricollega subito a un’immagine vista già altrove, e che nello svelamento del quadro, successivo all’ episodio di questo incontro, gli sarebbe nuovamente apparso:Il Mandralisca si trovò di fronte un uomo con uno strano sorriso sulle labbra. Un sorriso ironico, pungente e nello stesso tempo amaro, di uno che molto sa e molto ha visto, sa del presente e intuisce del futuro; di uno che si difende dal dolore della conoscenza e da un moto continuo di pietà. E gli occhi aveva piccoli e puntuti, sotto l’arco nero delle sopracciglia. Due pieghe gli solcarono il viso duro, agli angoli della bocca, come a chiudere e ancora accentuare quel sorriso. L’uomo era vestito da marinaio, con la milza di panno in testa, la casacca e i pantaloni a sacco, ma in guardandolo, colui mostra vasi uno strano marinaio: non aveva il sonnolento distacco, né la sorda stranianza dell’uomo vivente sopra il mare, ma la vivace attenzione di uno vissuto sempre sulla terra, in mezzo agli uomini e a le vicende loro. E,avvertitasi in colui, la grande dignità di un signore 39.Sono più che evidenti le corrispondenze lessicali tra la descrizione del dipinto e quella del personaggio “in carne e ossa”, le quali si concentrano nella natura,ironica, del sorriso, nella forma degli occhi (“piccoli e puntuti”), e nel vestiario,che nel ritratto dell’uomo a mezzobusto non è pienamente visibile, mentre viene associato esplicitamente all’abbigliamento tradizionale di un marinaio nel caso del personaggio incontrato sulla nave. Ma anche in questo caso, la caratterizzazione di questi è carica di un’ambiguità che va ben oltre quella del sorriso: benché vestito da marinaio, il personaggio non possiede la «stranianza dell’uomo vivente sopra il mare», ovvero quel distacco psicologico (caratteristico in chi vive quasi sempre lontano dal consorzio umano) dalle vicende della terra,dalle dolorose complicanze della storia, di cui egli sembra invece ben cosciente,osservatore interno e partecipe. La somiglianza tra l’Interdonato – rivoluzionario e uomo di contatto tra altri cospiratori fuggiti all’estero, che si era dovuto travestire da marinaio per ritornare in Sicilia, nonché fidanzato della figlia dello speziale di Lipari che aveva venduto il quadro al barone Mandralisca – e il marinaio antonelliano, è del resto sostenuta da una “teoria”, da un “gioco” delle somiglianze, tratto costitutivo, secondo Leonardo Sciascia della “sicilitudine”,come emerge dall’epigrafe (tratta dall’Ordine delle somiglianze) posta da Consolo in apertura del romanzo: «Il giuoco delle somiglianze è in Sicilia uno scandaglio delicato e sensibilissimo, uno strumento di conoscenza. […] I ritratti di Antonello “somigliano”; sono l’idea stessa, l’arché, della somiglianza […] A chi somiglia l’ignoto del Museo Mandralisca?».Sostenuta da tale “teoria”, il volto dell’ignoto e quello del presunto marinaio,richiamandosi a vicenda, divengono un ben visibile filo rosso che attraversa tutto il romanzo. Dopo aver constatato addirittura l’identicità dei due volti («Quelle due facce, la viva e la dipinta, erano identiche: la stessa coloritura oliva della pelle, gli stessi occhi acuti e scrutatori, lo stesso naso terminante a punta e soprattutto, lo stesso sorriso, ironico e pungente», p. 44), e dopo aver ricevuto delle delucidazioni intorno alle idee e azioni rivoluzionarie dell’ Interdonato, il barone Mandralisca continua ad associare entrambi i personaggi durante i momenti chiave dell’evolversi delle vicende politiche e rivoluzionarie, di cui egli sarebbe stato osservatore esterno. Un “gioco”, il suo, che di fatto è uno strumento di conoscenza, in quanto egli sposa con convinzione crescente gli ideali dello stesso Interdonato, provando man mano disgusto per le proprie occupazioni di collezionista e studioso di lumache e di antiquaria. Come se avesse ricevuto un importante stimolo da quel sorriso ironico, nel barone avviene un’evoluzione interiore che lo porta verso delle riflessioni sugli eventi storici contemporanei, nonché sulla stessa natura della storia in quanto racconto di singole vicende selezionate e a noi tramandate. Difatti, egli giunge a giudicare la scrittura storica l’opera di illuminati e di privilegiati e in quanto tale una vera e propria “impostura” su coloro che invece partecipano attivamente a quelle vicende, senza avere le possibilità materiali ed intellettuali di narrare la propria storia, preservandola da ogni distorsione successiva 40. Non solo, all’interno di tale riflessione (auto)critica intorno alla propria “casta” di intellettuali, nobili in questo caso ed illuminati, la quale sfocia nell’unica possibile azione fattiva del barone, ossia in quella di destinare i suoi beni ad una scuola e ad un museo, egli arriva anche a rileggere lo sguardo e il sorriso ironico del misterioso personaggio del quadro, dando maggiore rilievo al suo «distacco, lontananza […], d’aristocrazia, dovuta a nascita, a ricchezza, a cultura o al potere che viene da una carica…» (p. 117); e ancora: di fronte alla trascrizione, da parte del barone, dei graffiti carcerari degli autori della violenta sommossa di Alcalà de li Fusi, quel sorriso sembra volgersi addirittura in «greve, sardonico, maligno» (p. 120).Perciò, proprio per via della natura sempre più sociale ed etica di tale interpretazione,agli occhi del barone l’ignoto marinaio sembra riassumere nel suo volto quelli di numerosi esponenti delle classi elevate e degli intellettuali ed artisti del luogo: dal pittore al vescovo al ministro al direttore della polizia, fin allo stesso Mandralisca, colpevoli, anche nel caso di una concordia ideologica con la povera gente, di un senso di superiorità e di distacco.Il volto dell’Ignoto, da immagine figurativa, e passando per quella verbale,diventa quindi un importante Leitmotiv del romanzo, nonché metafora del distacco ironico ed illuminato, preso in prestito dall’eterna distanza del marinaio,caratteristico dei ceti superiori e degli intellettuali, destinati a rimanere separati dal popolo e da chi si oppone alla stessa divisione in classi, nonché al concetto di proprietà («La proprietà, Interdonato, la più grossa, mostruosa, divoratrice lumaca che sempre s’è aggirata strisciando per il mondo», p. 118). Un Leitmotiv marino che, nella sua valenza di “forma dell’esperienza”, di un’esperienza direi spiccatamente etica e sociale, è affiancato da uno prettamente terrestre,collegato fin dapprincipio alla figura del barone, più che a quella dell’ Interdonato,che con la sua capacità di fare comunque da ponte tra i rivoltosi e il nuovo establishment politico, nonché con quella di agire concretamente in loro favore (salvando loro la vita con il decreto sull’amnistia), conserva la sua qualità marinaresca dell’ambiguità sociale, ma anche dell’azione concreta. Si tratta del Leitmotiv metaforico della chiocciola, che dapprima viene collegata all’occupazione privilegiata del barone, ossia allo studio e alla schedatura delle lumache terrestri e fluviali di quella regione siciliana. Da metafora della mente illuminata dello studioso nobile, e sotto influenza di figure affini quali la spirale e il labirinto (nella loro lettura calviniana ed antropologica) 41, la chiocciola rivela poi, nel corso della narrazione, la sua natura sia centrifuga che centripeta, e viene via via associata a forze contrapposte come la vita e la morte, la libertà e le costrizioni/prigioni, la creatività e l’ossessione infertile. Infatti, di fronte agli eventi di Alcalà de li Fusi, il barone decide di abbandonare i suoi studi, schiacciato dall’idea che le sue lumache possano simboleggiare tutto ciò a cui egli,ormai, cerca di opporsi razionalmente, scegliendo la strada (centrifuga) della vita e della libertà, malgrado egli non riesca a volgere quella maturazione interiore in vera azione:E son peggiori de’ corvi e de’ sciacalli, le lumache, le creature belle, ermafrodite: temono il sole, distruggono i vivai e le colture, si nutrono financo di liquami, decomposizioni, umori cadaverici, s’insinuano in carcasse, ne spolpano le ossa, ricercano ne’ teschi le cervella, il bulbo acquoso nell’orbita dell’occhio… e non per caso i Romani le mangiavan ne’ pasti funerarî Al di là del fascino barocco esercitato da passi come questo – veri e propri risultati della natura strutturalmente e linguisticamente “formante” attribuibile non solo al tema ma anche al Leitmotiv – va quindi sottolineato che la narrazione da parte di Consolo della Sicilia e con essa del suo Mediterraneo è fortemente improntato sulla dialettica tra metafore marine, e marinare, e quelle terrestri, le quali si sviluppano come veri e propri Leitmotive che attraversano tutto il romanzo.Espressione del contrasto tra la cancellazione della storia nel “breve mare”43 che bagna l’isola, e l’ingiustizia sociale, costante storica, connessa all’impossibilità di intaccare radicalmente i poteri secolari che vi sono radicati, tali forme formanti dell’esperienza chiamano in causa i nessi tra storia e attualità, tra il passato e il presente, permettendo altresì delle riflessioni sul ruolo dell’intellettuale nel passato e su quello che egli occupa oggi, sulle sue capacità di osservare e di giudicare gli eventi politici e sociali, con lieve sorriso ironico, e sulla sua incapacità di intervenire, di agire, di prendere radicalmente posizione. Una dialettica irrisolta e produttrice di ambiguità, quella consoliana, che si trasferisce sul piano stilistico e narrativo nella rappresentazione ekphrastica di luminosi quadri di mare e di porti,concentrati nella prima parte del romanzo, alla quale si oppone nel cap. VIII la lunga descrizione della buia prigione sotterranea a forma di chiocciola, o spirale,dove i rivoltosi di Alcalà erano stati a lungo detenuti. Un’ambiguità che sembra tradursi definitivamente in sconfitta, nella rassegnata sovrapposizione delle due metafore, quando il barone esclama infine: «Ho capito: lumaca, lumaca è anche quel sorriso» (p. 118). Ambiguità mai risolta, però, visto che dal centro del quadro di Antonello da Messina, il sorriso del marinaio, rivolto per un attimo verso se stesso e avviluppatosi in un mortale movimento centripeto, può nuovamente riprendere la sua forza centripeta, ironica ma vitale, liberatoria.Arriviamo alla terza intrecciatura della nostra treccia marinaresca e mediterranea mediante la narrazione da parte di Consolo (amante di antefatti e di appendici) di un episodio che, a sua insaputa, costituisce l’antefatto del romanzo di Waciny Larej:E lui [Cervantes], il pellegrino d’Italia, il soldato di Lepanto, lo schiavo di Algeri, aveva frequentato la Sicilia. S’era imbarcato a Messina con l’Invincibile Armada, nella città dello Stretto aveva curato le sue ferite, aveva soggiornato a Palermo, a Trapani (nella novella El amante liberal è evocata questa città); nei bagni d’Algeri diveniva compagno di pena ell’avventuroso poeta siciliano Antonio Veneziano. Nella spianata delle moschee, dov’erano i bagni, i due udivano attraverso le grate la filastrocca che i bambini della casbah crudelmente cantavano nella franca lingua dei porti mediterranei: Non rescatar, non fugir
Don Juan no venir
Acá morir 44.
Nell’affacciarsi sulla grande agorà del mare di mezzo, echeggiante della lingua franca dei marinai e degli abitanti dei porti, gli scrittori provenienti dai diversi angoli di questo mare ascoltano e ri-narrano storie come questa, una storia vera che appartiene al comune patrimonio culturale e letterario di questa regione, e che, nel diventare parte dell’immaginario personale di un autore,viene rinnovata e re-immessa in quello di una comunità più ampia, sopranazionale ed interculturale. Nella sua triangolazione spagnolo-italo-algerina, l’avventurosa vita dello scrittore Miguel de Cervantes, è qui ripresa molto sinteticamente dal punto di vista siciliano, mentre, a partire dal suo versante algerino,essa viene rielaborata in modo diverso da Waciny Larej, in Don Chisciotte ad Algeri 45. Il romanzo, una attualizzazione delle mitiche vicende intorno allo scrittore spagnolo, è incentrato sul viaggio ad Algeri che Vásquez de Cervantes de Almería, lontano discendente di Miguel de Cervantes, intraprende con l’obiettivo di ripercorrere le tracce del suo famoso avo. In tutto somigliante a Don Chisciotte, la famosa creatura letteraria di Cervantes, Vásquez de Cervantes si presenta al signor Hsissen, funzionario del Ministero della Cultura, dove si occupa delle relazioni (pressoché inesistenti) ispano-algerine. Al termine di un “folle viaggio” che lo ha portato da Valladolid e Madrid a Napoli, Palermo e Genova e poi a Marsiglia, per poi imbarcarsi su una vecchia nave da commercio carica di zucchero da canna per giungere ad Algeri, lo spagnolo chiede a Hsissen di condurlo ai luoghi in cui il suo avo era vissuto per cinque anni come prigioniero. L’obiettivo del moderno Don Chisciotte, di professione giornalista,è quella di ripetere l’avventuroso viaggio di Cervantes «senza passare per le solite vie, […] in modo da riuscire a comprendere le sue sensazioni, le sue paure, e scrivere qualcosa sulle città che aveva amato e in cui aveva vissuto»46.Fondamentale in ciò è da lui considerato l’arrivo dal mare, la registrazione delle sensazioni che il “capitano” Cervantes, il quale aveva partecipato come soldato di marina alla battaglia di Lepanto, aveva provate durante la misteriosa cattura della sua nave da parte dei corsari:Per tornare al viaggio, mi interessava vedere il punto in cui Miguel e il fratello Rodrigo furono catturati. Quando il capitano me lo indicò provai strane sensazioni. Mi parve persino di sentire le urla, subito inghiottite dal mare, dei passeggeri della sfortunata imbarcazione. Mi rendevo conto che il mare è in grado di conservare misteriose ombre, mentre la terra cancella tutto 47.Difatti, la perlustrazione di Algeri, e in particolare dei luoghi in cui si era trovato Cervantes secoli prima, intrapresa dai due uomini, è una conferma dell’idea che “la terra cancelli tutto”. Algeri, la città un tempo tanto amata da Hsissen, assomiglia ormai ad un labirinto dalle mille paure e vie senza uscita,costellato da ombre minacciose che controllano ogni loro movimento, nell’impresa rischiosa e “folle”, anch’essa, di percorrerla per motivi di turismo, per di più culturale. La grotta di Cervantes, un tempo luogo di culto e di attrazione per i visitatori della città, è ora decaduta a mondezzaio, la targa commemorativa dello scrittore è conservata in una discarica, dove Hsissen e Don Chisciotte scoprono dei traffici illeciti e mafiosi intorno ai beni culturali del paese, da anni misteriosamente scomparsi.Condotta in prima persona dal punto di vista di Hsissen, la narrazione delle sue giornate trascorse con Don Chisciotte alla scoperta dei tesori “spagnoli” di Algeri è fin dapprincipio offuscata dalle violenti rappresaglie che egli dovette subire a causa della sua amicizia con il misterioso erede di Cervantes. Nel primo capitolo del romanzo (corredato come tutti gli altri con un breve riassunto del suo contenuto, ad imitazione del romanzo cervantino), Hsissen si presenta come caduto in una profonda solitudine, dopo essere stato licenziato e poi crudelmente mutilato (i misteriosi terroristi da lui denominati “figli di cane” gli hanno amputato la lingua e il pene); una solitudine alleviata solo dalla scrittura,che tuttavia non può impedirgli di formulare il desiderio di suicidarsi:Con la lingua mozzata e il pene reciso, credo di non aver altra scelta che accogliere l’invito delle onde, di quest’azzurra immensità, che tutte le sere mi ricordano l’isolamento e la solitudine in cui mi trovo e la paura, profonda e palese, in cui vivo. Non mi rimane altro che gettarmi in questo mare che guarda il mio silenzio 48.Nelle pagine che seguono, e in cui si inizia il racconto retrospettivo delle vicende che lo hanno condotto verso tale terribile destino, Hsissen attribuisce molta importanza alla sua profonda passione per la Spagna, che ne fa un personaggio speculare rispetto a Don Chisciotte, l’alter ego algerino del discendente di Cervantes. Difatti, Hsissen, è discendente di un morisco di Granada, un bibliotecario che nei tempi “bui” della reconquista era stato cacciato dalla sua Spagna. Da sempre, egli “sogna” l’altra sponda mediterranea, un sogno alimentato dalla nonna che abita con lui e che si è ricostruita in casa una piccola Granada, circondandosi di fiori di Cassia (fiore-simbolo di Carmen) importati secoli prima quando il loro avo ne portò con sé i semi. L’affinità tra l’algerino Hsissen e lo spagnolo Don Chisciotte, entrambi profondamente segnati dalla discendenza da un avo mitizzato, la quale porta i tratti distintivi di un’alterità da loro introiettata a tal punto da divenire delle personalità di “irregolari” che per tutta la loro vita hanno guardato altrove, è sostenuta da una sorta di “teoria della parentela”, che trova il suo corrispettivo nella teoria consoliana della “somiglianza”. Laddove, in Consolo, la somiglianza con il marinaio ritrattato portava alla circoscrizione di un tipo umano, quello dell’intellettuale distaccato, del nobile illuminato, osservatore ironico degli eventi storici, in Larej la parentela con degli avi famosi e mitizzati conduce, oltre a creare una “somiglianza”, consoliana,tra i due personaggi principali, alla sovrapposizione del destino del personaggio contemporaneo con quello dell’avo, ad una ripetizione costrittiva della storia e delle vicende singolari che ne sono stati tramandati, in famiglia (nel caso dell’avo di Hsissen) o nei racconti autobiografici e biografici (nel caso di Miguel de Cervantes).Intanto, e prima ancora di “compiere” il destino del proprio avo, inseguito da Hsissen con la passione per la lingua spagnola e da Don Chisciotte con il viaggio intrapreso per seguire le orme di Cervantes, e nell’incrociarsi dei loro sguardi tra Spagna ed Algeria, i due tracciano una “riscrittura” della stessa città di Algeri: dal suo interno, il degrado della «magnifica città senza senso, uccello libero; meretrice amata» (p. 14) è registrato dal disilluso Hsissen, mentre Don Chisciotte ne esalta e riscopre le bellezze nascoste, ritrovandovi – nonostante i tanti paradossi con cui egli si scontra durante la sua ricerca dei luoghi cervantini – il suo luogo ideale («Il sole di questa città è insopportabile. Il mare era agitato oggi. Il porto quasi deserto. Mi sento leggero come una piuma di pavone variopinta. Assaporo la gioia di vivere. Godo l’irripetibile occasione della vita. Ci è data una volta sola», p. 135). Una idealizzazione, la sua, che nasce dal continuo confronto con il passato, dalla speranza di farlo rinascere insieme alla sua personale ripetizione delle vicende che avevano visto Cervantes prigioniero ad Algeri. Quando, contemporaneamente al licenziamento e al crescendo di minacce di cui è interessato Hsissen, Don Chisciotte viene infine arrestato e incarcerato,egli si ritrova in una situazione da lui, forse inconsciamente, prevista e ricercata.Diversamente che nel caso del suo alter ego algerino, il compiersi del suo destino “parentelare” lo conduce non verso la disperazione suicida, bensì verso la piena realizzazione del suo progetto di vita, ossia una vicinanza inaspettata e suggestiva con il mitico avo.Cambia, infatti, il punto di vista della narrazione nel momento in cui Don Chisciotte viene arrestato, e tutto il cap. V è costruito in forma di taccuino, nel quale egli trascrive le sue esperienze fatte fin dalla partenza da Almería, in Spagna, rifacendosi volutamente alla commedia El trato de Argel (del 1580), in cui Cervantes tradusse i suoi anni algerini nella messa in scena barocca delle vicende di diversi cristiani catturati dai “mori”. Nelle pagine del taccuino del moderno Don Chisciotte emerge quindi con insistenza il motivo della nave,mezzo con cui sia lui che il suo avo sono giunti ad Algeri, entrambi in circostanze misteriose, entrambi condotti o traviati da marinai e corsari, che qui si profilano come i responsabili “materiali” delle vicende ispano-algerine dei due personaggi,custodi di segreti difficilmente comprensibili dagli uomini di terra.Apparso già precedentemente nel romanzo, la figura del marinaio/corsaro, “traduttore”di personaggi di varia provenienza verso esperienze inattese e luoghi sconosciuti, si configura quindi come un importante motivo che rafforza il legame parentelare e di somiglianza non solo con Cervantes, ma anche con altri scrittori ed avventurieri che subirono la stessa sua sorte 49. I marinai in Larej,autori della secolare translatio mediterranea non solo di beni ma anche di personaggi di varia provenienza, “tradotti” da una riva all’altra, deviati dai luoghi di destinazione, catturati e trattenuti in porti sconosciuti che echeggiano di lingue diverse, sono del resto descritti come i protettori dei misteri del mare, come i custodi dei segreti che esso cela ai naviganti “per caso”, e che loro possono rivelare quando decidono. Così, alla vista del luogo in cui fu catturato Cervantes il 26 settembre 1575, il moderno Don Chisciotte, durante il tragitto che lo porta verso Algeri, è posto dallo stesso capitano della nave davanti ad un segreto indecifrabile, mai rivelato in letteratura o in storia, ma custodito ancora dal mare che bagna gli scogli coperti, come da secoli, dai gabbiani:– Il punto è questo. Vedi i gabbiani, Sono sempre qui, d’estate e d’inverno. È qui che i corsari hanno assalito la nave El Sol e catturato Cervantes.[…]– Sai capitano? Ho avuto una visione, ho visto la cattura di Cervantes e dei suoi compagni! Avverto la sua presenza, avverto il silenzio e il tremore causato dalla paura.Guardo le onde e vedo il fascino dell’avventura e dello smarrimento e sento, oltre il loro infrangersi sulle rocce, le urla delle donne cadute preda dei giannizzeri del mare! Il capitano aveva guardato i flutti che lambivano lo scafo, poi si era fregato le mani e come uno che la sa lunga aveva detto:– Amico mio, io sono un marinaio e i marinai conoscono il mare. Cervantes doveva sapere i rischi che correva. Mi chiedo piuttosto come sia stato possibile farsi sorprendere in un tratto ben conosciuto. C’è qualcosa di misterioso in tutto questo. Qualcosa di non detto, forse per paura, forse per amore. – È l’estro dello scrittore geniale infatuato del mare!– Questo non spiega il mistero. Mah! La questione è troppo complicata! Entriamo, fa molto freddo 50. Del resto, il marinaio come figura di scambio, di custode e di traduttore esperto dei segreti del mare e con essi delle dimensioni più profonde della vita 49 Durante la visita della discarica da parte di Hsissen e Don Chisciotte, il suo direttore, interrogato sulle vicende algerine di Cervantes, narra il caso parallelo del poéta francese Jean-François Régnard, catturato anch’egli dai corsari e imprigionato ad Algeri nel 1679,circa un secolo dopo lo scrittore spagnolo, nonché di altri avventurieri che subirono la stessa sorte (vedi ivi., pp. 65-69). 50 Ivi, pp. 138-139. dell’uomo (come la paura e l’amore, a cui allude il capitano), nell’ambito del Mediterraneo è allo stesso tempo figura di traduttore tra le diverse culture che si affacciano su questo mare “interno”, e fin dal secolo in cui visse Cervantes, il XVI, inventore e propagatore di una lingua transculturale che unisce in sé le lingue parlate in tutti i suoi porti: la lingua franca. Fortemente improntata sullo spagnolo (come risulta anche dal testo che poco avanti abbiamo visto citato in Consolo), sull’arabo e sul turco in una prima fase – ossia in quella di poco successiva all’insediamento, nel 1510, di corsari turchi guidati dal pirata Khair Ed-Din Barbarossa ad Algeri che per diversi decenni divenne il più temuto covo di pirati del Mediterraneo – la lingua franca riflesse nel suo lessico il contatto e lo scontro continui tra i corsari musulmani e gli spagnoli che nello stesso secolo avevano occupato molte parti della costa maghrebina. Mescolatosi, ancora nel corso del sec. XVI, in misura crescente con l’italiano (nella sua variante veneta e genovese,soprattutto), e con il francese, la lingua franca (da vero e proprio pidgin dai tratti linguistici autonomi e stabili) divenne durante i secoli seguenti il dialetto parlato,fino ad oggi, ad Algeri e a Malta, noto a partire dalla fine del secolo XIX (insieme alla colonizzazione francese del Maghreb) come “sabir”, e sempre di più assimilato alle singole varianti arabe nazionali nonché alle lingue coloniali 51.Per tornare al romanzo di Larej, la soluzione dell’arcano cervantino custodito dal mare, non appare molto lontana dalla ipotesi del capitano della nave sulla quale viaggia il moderno Don Chisciotte: una delle cause della cattura e della lunga permanenza ad Algeri potrebbe essere stato l’amore per una donna, la Zoraide di cui Cervantes parla in diversi luoghi, una giovane “mora”, prigioniera degli stessi corsari che avevano catturato lo scrittore spagnolo. Un’esperienza,quella amorosa, che si riavvera nuovamente nel discendente di Cervantes,quando egli conosce durante gli interrogatori da parte dei suoi carcerieri una traduttrice algerina che gli viene affiancata, una donna che gli rievoca la Zoraide cervantina e che è da lui amata come il suo avo aveva forse amato la giovane mora: da lontano, nell’ammirazione estasiata della diversità, della bellezza esotica e irraggiungibile, e nella sua associazione con il mito algerino della “Guardiana delle ombre”, un mito appreso da Hsissen e da entrambi ripensato e ri-sognato nei termini della speranza per un futuro migliore della città.Ripartendo da Algeri, ancora una volta per mare («chi entra in Algeria per mare viene espulso per mare», p. 179), Don Chisciotte porterà con sé questo suo segreto insieme a quello di Cervantes, concludendo: Ormai questa narrazione non riguarda più Cervantes ma me stesso e la storia degli abitanti di questa città che è come un’isola, per alcuni versi grande come una stella, per altri piccola come la cruna di un ago 52. Nel suo passaggio da tema a Leitmotiv e a motivo, la figura del marinaio nei tre autori mediterranei presi in esame riceve delle modulazioni diverse, rivolte nel caso di Izzo maggiormente verso i suoi aspetti esistenziali e mitici, di derivazione omerica, in Consolo verso quelli metaforici, a cui lo scrittore giunge tramite lo sfruttamento della tecnica ekphrastica e l’applicazione della teoria “siciliana” della somiglianza, e in Larej verso l’incarnazione dell’idea di uno scambio tra le culture, e di quella di una sovrapposizione metonimica tra il marinaio e il mare. In tutti e tre gli autori, un importante fattore che incide sulle diverse modulazioni della stessa figura letteraria è rappresentato dall’incrocio tra il tempo presente con quello storico, un incrocio sul quale incidono in varia misura le narrazioni mitologiche e letterarie del Mediterraneo e che in tutti i casi è caratterizzato da aperture utopistiche e visioni del futuro che si nutrono di una rivisitazione meditata del passato: in Consolo il passato “illustra” il presente (tramite una vera e propria illustrazione figurativa), mentre in Izzo e Larej il presente è memoria attiva, vivida del passato, di cui esso offre una interpretazione nuova. Oltre ad essere quindi crocevia delle diverse dimensioni temporali, il marinaio diviene la chiave di lettura non solo dello spazio e della cultura del Mediterraneo, ma anche stimolo verso l’interpretazione originale del proprio senso di appartenenza a tale spazio e a tale cultura, la quale nel caso di Izzo e di Larej si manifesta principalmente nella riscrittura dello spazio urbano della città portuale in cui gli stessi autori vivono, mentre in Consolo è volta maggiormente verso la rielaborazione di problematiche storico-identitarie che caratterizzano la sua Heimat insulare, la Sicilia. Attraverso la ripresa variamente modulata della figura del marinaio, la narrazione della cultura e della storia mediterranea vede quindi negli autori provenienti da diverse aree della grande regione mediterranea,l’introduzione di una pluralità di aspetti nuovi che, a partire dall’elaborazione di problematiche connesse alla patria più ristretta, interessano un comune e più vasto discorso identitario ed interculturale. Un intreccio – ancora una volta marino e condotto nel grande spazio della letteratura – tra la coscienza di appartenere ad un microcosmo che non può non aprirsi al macrocosmo della pluralità di mari, di oceani e di continenti con cui è in relazione, come potremmo dire parafrasando Vincenzo Consolo:Lo spazio nella letteratura è vasto quanto il mondo, varca a volte i confini stessi del mondo. Diventa infinito. Dobbiamo allora giocoforza navigare per il breve mare, il Mediterraneo, muoverci per una esigua terra, l’Italia, dei quali abbiamo maggiore cognizione,con la consapevolezza tuttavia che questo mare e questa terra non sono separati da oceani e continenti, che con essi hanno relazioni, ad essi e da essi danno e ricevono esperienza e conoscenza 53.E allora, a partire dall’idea del Mediterraneo come complesso incrocio di mondi e come ponte verso mondi remoti ma ad esso collegati, viene voglia di partire con moto odissaico, dantesco, verso l’oceano e la vastità di altri mari. Per interrogarsi, magari, sui marinai di Fernando Pessoa e di José Saramago,che a sorpresa aprono lo spazio letterario non tanto verso geografie reali quanto verso quelle puramente immaginarie, introducendo delle note esistenziali nel trattamento di tale figura, che stupiscono per la loro delicatezza e per l’aspirazione alla scoperta di verità profondamente umane: l’esperienza dell’esilio come cifra della vita umana e l’amore come il suo estremo ideale e utopia 54. Ma conviene, per questa volta, calare le vele e non superare le Colonne di Ercole.



1 «Il dolce e classico Mediterraneo privo di mestieri, fatto apposta per sciabordare / contro terrazze guardate da statue bianche in giardini contingui!» (da “Ode marittima”, tr. it. di A. Tabucchi).2 Tale espressione è stata usata da A. GNISCI in “La rete interletteraria mediterranea”,saggio compreso in D. DURIS ˇIN, A. GNISCI (a cura di), Il Mediterraneo. Una rete interletteraria,Roma, Bulzoni, 2000, pp. 29-40.3 Dello scrittore martinicano E. GLISSANT si veda in particolare Introduction à une poétiquedu divers, Paris, Gallimard, 1996; tr. it. (a cura di F. Neri), Poetica del diverso, Roma,Meltemi, 1998.4 È d’obbligo citare a questo proposito P. MATVEJEVIC ´, Il Mediterraneo. Un nuovo breviario,Milano, Garzanti, 1993, e in particolare il cap. II, “Carte”, pp. 139-198, dedicato ai peripli marini e alle cartine nautiche.5 Recenti tentativi pseudoscientifici di trasferire l’ambientazione di una ipotetica “reale”odissea nel Mar Baltico, portano il segno di una doppia assurdità: l’attaccamento ad un presunto statuto di realtà del poema, e la negazione dell’evidenza della sua location greco-mediterranea:faccio soprattutto riferimento al libro di F. VINCI, Omero nel Baltico, Roma, Fratelli Palombi Ed., 19982. La mediterraneità del poema omerico è stata, peraltro, ben riconosciutada chi lo ha riattualizzato a partire da contesti culturali distanti come quello caraibico: vedi ad esempio il poema di D. WALCOTT, Omeros (tr. it. di A. Molesini, Omeros, Milano, Adelphi,2003), e il romanzo Los pasos perdidos di A. CARPENTIER (tr. it. di A. Morino, I passi perduti,Palermo, Sellerio 1995).6 A proposito di questo concetto mi permetto di rinviare al mio libro Ulisse tra due mari.Le riscritture novecentesche dell’Odissea nel Mediterraneo e nei Caraibi, Isernia, Cosmo Iannone 2006, e nello specifico alle pp 14-19; foundational fiction è un’espressione usata daHOMI K. BHABA in Nation and Narration, London/NewYork, Routledge, 1993, p. 5; tr. it.Nazione e Narrazione, Roma, Meltemi, 1997.7 Vedi la testimonianza diretta di uno dei riscrittori italiani dell’Odissea, lo scrittore,recentemente scomparso, Luigi Malerba: nel breve Post Scriptum al suo romanzo Itaca per sempre, egli fa infatti riferimento alla performance di un cantastorie greco incontrato sull’Isola di Corfú, un incontro che fece da importante stimolo alla composizione del suo romanzo. Cfr. L. MALERBA, Itaca per sempre, Milano, Mondadori, 1997, p. 183-185.8 Mi riferisco ovviamente all’omonima pièce saviniana, del 1925, ripubblicata da Adelphi nel 1989.9 Vedi a questo proposito la voce “Marinaio” di C. SPILA, per il Dizionario dei temi letterari,a cura di R. CESERANI, M. DOMINICHELLI, P. FASANO, Milano, UTET, 2007, pp. 1422-1429. Una originale sovrapposizione tra il mito di Ulisse e quello di Sindbad è stata attuata da Stefano Benni e Paolo Fresu in Sagrademari. La storia di Odisseo Sinbad perduto in mare (il testo di questo lavoro letterario-musicale in lingua sarda è consultabile all’indirizzo www.stefanobenni.it/inediti/sagrademari.html). 10 Come è stato giustamente osservato da Cristiano Spila con riferimento a Walter Benjamin, il marinaio è uno dei principali “maestri del racconto” (cfr. C. SPILA, “Marinaio”,cit., p. 1423).11 Cfr. E. LEED, La mente del viaggiatore: dall’Odissea al turismo di massa, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1992, p. 14. Difatti, o meglio paradossalmente, mentre Spila, nella sua voce del DTL sopra citata,non usa mai la dizione “tema” in riferimento ai “suoi” marinai, essa risulta pur sempre come uno dei temi schedati dai curatori del Dizionario. Non credo infatti che nel caso di Moby Dick di Melville né in quello della Ballata del vecchio Marinaio di Coleridge, per indicare solo due testi esemplari, si possa ragionevolmente sostenere che si tratti di opere in cui venga sviluppato il tema del marinaio. Piuttosto, i temi in essi trattati sono quelli della ribellione metafisica (Melville) e della vita come perpetua erranza, vista come redenzione (Coleridge), come lo stesso Spila sostiene. Né, credo, un attento studioso di tematologia come Mario Domenichelli sarebbe del resto d’accordo nel creare una tale, facile, equazione.13 Vedi M. DOMENICHELLI, “I temi e la letteratura europea”, in M. DOMENICHELLI, P. FASANO,M. LAVAGETTO, N. MERLA (a cura di), Letture e riflessioni critiche, vol. I degli Studi di Letterature Comparate in onore di Remo Ceserani, Roma, Vecchiarelli editore, 2003, pp. 125-143.14 Cfr. ivi, p. 131. La citazione da Segre è tratta dal suo Avviamento all’analisi del testo letterario, Torino, Einaudi 1985, p. 348. Per una presentazione critica della storia della tema-18,tologia a partire dalla Stoffgeschichte di stampo positivista e della discussione delle principali correnti internazionali emerse più recentemente vedi il fondamentale contributo di A.TROCCHI, “Temi e miti letterari”, in A. GNISCI (a cura di), Letteratura comparata, Milano,Bruno Mondadori, 2001, pp. 63-86.15 Cfr. M. DOMENICHELLI, art. cit., p. 132.16 Ivi, p. 133.17 «La géocritique est ensemble une théorie et une méthodologie innovante qui permet l’étude des représentations esthétiques des espaces humains. Elle sonde en particulier le lien entre le référent et ses représentations. La géocritique repose sur trois prémisses théoriques distinctes mais complémentaires: la spatio-temporalité, la transgressivité et la référentialité»,cfr. B. WESTPHAL, “Géocritique”, in La Recherche en Littérature générale et comparée en France en 2007. Bilan et perspectives, études réunies par A. TOMICHE et K. ZIEGER, Valenciennes,Presses Universitaires de Valenciennes, 2007, pp. 325-345. Per approfondimenti teorico-metodologici vedi inoltre B. WESTPHAL, “Pour une approche géocritique des textes:esquissse”, in La Géocritique mode d’emploi, éd. B. WESTPHAL, Limoges, Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 2000, éd. 9-39; lo stesso articolo è stato ripreso nella Bibliothèque comparatiste,www.vox-poetica.org Per l’area mediterranea, si veda inoltre Le Lieu et son mythe. Une géocriqtique méditerranéenne,éd. B. WESTPHAL, Limoges, Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 2002.18 Tr. it. Letteratura europea e Medio Evo Latino, Firenze, La Nuova Italia, 1992.19 Per l’analisi critica e l’esemplificazione antologica di tale concetto si veda il fondamentale contributo di F. SINOPOLI, Il mito della letteratura europea, Roma, Meltemi, 1999.20 Faccio riferimento al libro di M. BERNAL, Atena nera, Milano, Pratiche, 1997.Notevole anche il libro di S. MARCONI, Reti mediterrane. Le censurate matrici afro-mediorientalidella nostra civiltà, Roma, Gamberetti, 2003.21 Intorno alla necessità etica di superare l’eurocentrismo, non solo sul piano degli studi letterari, sono state indicate diverse vie da A. GNISCI in Via della Decolonizzazione europea,Isernia, Cosmo Iannone, 2004, in Mondializzare la mente. Via della Decolonizzazione europea n. 3, Isernia, Cosmo Iannone, 2006 e in Decolonizzare l’Italia, Roma, Bulzoni, 2007.22 Per Flammarion, Paris. La traduzione italiana (della quale purtroppo non si segnala l’autore) è apparsa nel 2001 per e/o, Roma, sotto il titolo Marinai perduti.23 L’opera di Izzo è disponibile in traduzione presso la stessa casa editrice romana.24 Per la comprensione della poetica dell’autore marsigliese, fortemente influenzata dall’opera del poeta-marinaio marsigliese L. Brauquier, rimando soprattutto alla raccolta di tredici brevi scritti (ai quali si aggiunge un testo tratto dalla raccolta di racconti Vivere stanca,Roma, e/o, 2007) intitolata Aglio, menta e basilico. Marsiglia, il noir e il Mediterraneo,Roma, e/o, 2006. Da segnalare anche il ben informato articolo di L. SULIS, “Jean-Claude Izzo”, in «Pulp libri», n. 65, gennaio/febbraio 2007, pp. 61-65.25 Cfr, J.-C. Izzo, Marinai perduti, cit., p. 11.26 Ivi, p. 9.97 27 Ivi, p. 238.28 Ivi, p. 116. Il corrispettivo testuale si trova in P. MATVEJEVIC ´, Il Mediterraneo. Nuovo Breviario, cit., p. 18. Altri riferimenti più o meno diretti ad idee ricorrenti negli scritti di Matvejevic´ sono alle pp. 122 («L’Atlantico o il Pacifico sono dei mari di distanza. Il Mediterraneo è un mare di prossimità. L’Adriatico d’intimità») e alle pp. 214 (in cui si dà l’elenco delle parole greche per definire il mare).29 Ivi, p. 238.30 Marinai perduti è ricchissimo di riferimenti musicali, tra cui le canzoni del cantautore italiano Gianmaria Testa. Le musiche di Testa accompagnano anche la pièce teatrale intitolata Rien à signaler (una finestra sul Mediterraneo), libero adattamento dello stesso romanzo di Izzo da parte di S. Gandolfo e F. Beccacini, il cui debutto sotto la regia di S. Gandolfo ha avuto luogo dal 24 al 26 luglio 2008 a Borgio Verezzi.Marinai ignoti, perduti (e nascosti)31 «L’ebbrezza stessa della luce non fa che esaltare lo spirito di contemplazione. L’ho scoperto a casa mia, a Marsiglia. Vicino alla baia des Singes, ben oltre il porticciolo di Les Goude, all’estremità orientale della città. Ore e ore a guardar passare nello stretto di Les Croisettes le barche di ritorno dalla pesca. È qui, e in nessun altro posto, che queste mi sembrano,mi sembreranno sempre, la più belle. Ore e ore ad attendere quel momento, più magico di qualsiasi altro, in cui un cargo entrerà nella luce del sole al tramonto sul mare e vi scomparirà per una frazione di secondo. Il tempo di credere che tutto è possibile»; cfr. J.-C. IZZO, “Il Mediterraneo e le sue felicità possibili”, in Id., Aglio, menta e basilico…, cit.,pp. 17-18.32 L’ultima edizione di questo romanzo è del 2004, per Milano, Oscar Mondadori. A questa edizione si rimanda sia per le citazioni che seguono, sia per la bibliografia critica alle pp.XIV-XVII, a cui si aggiunga un rimando al ricco volume collettaneo di I. ROMERO PINTOR (ed.), Vincenzo Consolo: punto de unión entre Sicilia y Espanˇa. Los treinta anˇos de Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, Valencia, Universidad de Valencia, 2007.33 Vedi il fondamentale saggio di C. SEGRE, intitolato appunto “La costruzione a chiocciola nel Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio di Vincenzo Consolo”, già prefazione all’edizione einaudiana dello stesso romanzo del 1987, e ora raccolto in ID., La polifonia nella letteratura del Novecento, Torino, Einaudi, 1991, pp. 71-86.34 Mi riferisco al contributo di V. CONSOLO a I. ROMERO PINTOR (ed.), op. cit., dal titolo “Antonello da Messina”, pp. 51-61. Riprendendo una sua polemica con Roberto Longhi intorno alla questione dell’identità del personaggio ritrattato da Antonello da Messina,Consolo sposa l’ipotesi che si tratti di Giovanni Rizo di Lipari, un notabile dell’isola «di cui non si escludono interessi marinari» (p. 57).35 Cfr. L. RITTER SANTINI, Ritratti con le parole, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1994, pp. 9-10.36 Cfr. V. Consolo, Il Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio, cit., p. 25.37 Ivi, p. 23.38 Cfr. la postfazione dello stesso Consolo alla riedizione del suo romanzo, “Nota dell’autorevent’anni dopo”, ivi, pp. 169-170.39 Ivi, p. 8.104 40 Vedi a questo proposito: ivi, pp. 112-113.42.41 «Questa planimetria metaforica verticalizzavo poi con un simbolo offertomi dal malacologo Mandralisca, quello della conchiglia, del suo movimento a spirale (archetipo biologico e origine di percezione, conoscenza e costruzione, com’è nella Spirale delle calviniane Cosmicomiche; arcaico segno centrifugo e centripeto di monocentrico labirinto, com’è in Kerényi e in Eliade)», cfr. “Nota dell’autore vent’anni dopo”, ivi, p. 170.42 Ivi, p. 115.106 Marinai ignoti, perduti (e nascosti)43 Cfr. ID., “Lo spazio in letteratura”, in ID., Di qua dal faro, Milano, Mondadori, 2001,p. 263.44 Cfr. ID., “La retta e la spirale”, in ID., Di qua dal faro, cit., p. 259.45 Il romanzo, dal titolo originale Harisata al zhilal. Don Kishot fi l-jazai’r, è stato tradotto nel 1999 da W. Dahmash, per la piccola e meritevole casa editrice Mesogea di Messina.Non sono segnalati la data e il luogo dell’edizione originale.46 Ivi, p. 29.47 Ivi, p. 31.48 Ivi, p. 15.51 Per la storia e le caratteristiche della lingua franca e del sabir, vedi G. V. ERNST, M-D.GLEBGEN, CH. SCHMIDT, W. SCHWEICKARD (Hrsg.), Romanische Sprachgeschichte. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Geschichte der romanischen Sprachen / Histoire linguistique de la Romania. Manuel international d’histoire linguistique de la Romania, Berlin/New York,Mouton/de Gruyer Verl., 2003, pp. 1100-1105.52 Cfr. W. LAREJ, op. cit., p. 179.53 Cfr. V. CONSOLO, “Lo spazio in letteratura”, cit., p, 263.54 Faccio riferimento alla pièce di F. PESSOA, Il marinaio. Dramma statico in un atto, tr.it. di A. Tabucchi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, alla famosa “Ode marittima” (in Poesie di Álvaro de Campos, tr. it. di A. Tabucchi, Milano, Adelphi, 1993) al racconto lungo di J. SARAMAGO,Il racconto dell’isola sconosciuta, tr. it. di P. Colle e R. Desti, Torino, Einaudi, 2003.

La mutazione antropologica tra sud e nord: i casi di Vincenzo Consolo e Gianni Celati

DANIEL RAFFINI
Il concetto di mutazione antropologica coniato da Pier Paolo Pasolini descrive il cambiamento della società italiana nel passaggio dal mondo contadino a quello industriale. Tra gli scrittori che si interessarono al fenomeno, cercando di trasferirne gli effetti nelle loro narrazioni e ragionando su di esso a livello teorico, si analizzano qui i casi di Vincenzo Consolo e Gianni Celati. Il primo descrive nei suoi racconti la fine del mondo contadino siciliano, il dramma della dissoluzione di un sapere millenario e la resistenza strenua ma inutile di alcuni personaggi reali che entrano nelle narrazioni. La mutazione antropologica sfocia in Sicilia nell’emigrazione di massa, che riflette il vuoto successivo alla fine del mondo contadino. Lo stesso senso di vuoto è percepibile anche dove quella società riesce a prendere piede, la Pianura Padana descritta da Gianni Celati nei suoi resoconti di viaggio e nei suoi racconti degli anni Ottanta. In questo caso lo svuotamento si riflette sulle persone e sul paesaggio e viene riportata dallo scrittore sulla pagina attraverso una scrittura scarna frutto di un’attenta osservazione. Il concetto di mutazione antropologica coniato da Pier Paolo Pasolini descrive il cambiamento della società italiana nel passaggio dal mondo contadino a quello industriale. Pasolini se ne occupa in una serie di articoli usciti tra il 1973 e il 1974 su varie testate, dando vita a un dibattito che vede l’intervento di molti scrittori e intellettuali italiani, tra cui Alberto Moravia, Edoardo Sanguineti, Italo Calvino, Maurizio Ferrara, Tullio De Mauro, Franco Fortini e Leonardo Sciascia. In particolare, Pasolini viene accusato di rinnegare lo sviluppo e di ripetere concetti già formulati. Lo scrittore riprende in effetti discorsi sulla società contemporanea già formulati da Marcuse, Horkheimer e Adorno, quando parlavano ad esempio di uomo a una dimensione e di tolleranza repressiva. Tuttavia, specifica Berardinelli nell’introduzione agli Scritti Corsari che «solo ora quei processi di cui aveva parlato la sociologia critica in Germania, in Francia e negli Stati Uniti, arrivano a compimento in Italia, con una violenza concentrata e improvvisa»1. Gli articoli di Pasolini ci restituiscono l’idea della società contemporanea come di sistema repressivo teso all’omologazione culturale, in cui una nuova classe media formata culturalmente su modelli esterni imposti dal potere viene a sostituire le vecchie categorie oppositive di fascismo e antifascismo. Scrive ancora Berardinelli che «per Pasolini i concetti sociologici e politici diventavano evidenze fisiche, miti e storie della fine del mondo»2. La mitizzazione dei processi sociologici rende possibile la trasfigurazione letteraria di questo mondo che va scomparendo in un gruppo di poesie italo-friulane tarde, pubblicate da Pasolini in quegli anni e poi entrate nella sezione Tetro entusiasmo della raccolta La Nuova Gioventù. Nell’articolo Acculturazione e acculturazione, uscito per la prima volta sul «Corriere della Sera» il 9 dicembre 1973 con il titolo Sfida ai dirigenti della televisione, Pasolini si scaglia contro la centralizzazione come livellazione delle differenze: Nessun centralismo fascista è riuscito a fare ciò che ha fatto il centralismo della civiltà dei consumi. Il fascismo proponeva un modello, reazionario e monumentale, che però restava lettera morta. Le varie culture particolari (contadine, sottoproletarie, operaie) continuavano imperturbabili a uniformarsi ai loro antichi modelli: la repressione si limitava ad ottenere la loro adesione a parole. Oggi, al contrario, l’adesione ai modelli imposti dal Centro è totale e incondizionata. I modelli culturali reali sono rinnegati. L’abiura è compiuta. Si può dunque affermare che la «tolleranza» della ideologia edonistica voluta dal nuovo potere, è la peggiore delle repressioni della storia umana? Come si è potuta esercitare tale repressione? Attraverso due rivoluzioni, interne all’organizzazione borghese: la rivoluzione delle infrastrutture e la rivoluzione del sistema d’informazioni. […] Per mezzo della televisione, il Centro ha assimilato a sé l’intero paese, che era così storicamente differenziato e ricco di culture originali. Ha cominciato un’opera di omologazione distruttrice di ogni autenticità e concretezza. Ha imposto cioè – come dicevo – i suoi modelli: che sono modelli voluti dalla nuova industrializzazione, la quale non si accontenta di un «uomo che consuma», ma pretende che non siano concepibili altre ideologie che quella del consumo.3 La religione del consumo avrebbe preso il posto della religione vera e propria in qualità di oppio dei popoli di marxista memoria. Da qui parte Pasolini nel suo Studio sulla rivoluzione antropologica in Italia, dalla costatazione – in seguito alla vittoria del no nel referendum sull’abolizione del divorzio – che la società italiana è più evoluta in fatto di laicismo rispetto a quanto credessero il Vaticano e il PCI. Pasolini ne deduce un cambiamento del ceto medio, non più legato ai valori cristiani ma all’ideologia del consumo e ne trae la conclusione «che l’Italia contadina e paleoindustriale è crollata, si è disfatta, non c’è più, e al suo posto c’è un vuoto che aspetta probabilmente di essere colmato da una completa borghesizzazione»4. Pasolini registra insomma un cambiamento profondo nella società italiana a seguito del boom economico: Si tratta infatti del passaggio di una cultura, fatta di analfabetismo (il popolo) e di umanesimo cencioso (i ceti medi) da un’organizzazione culturale arcaica, all’organizzazione moderna della «cultura di massa». La cosa in realtà è enorme: è un fenomeno, insito, di «mutazione» antropologica.5 La mutazione antropologica implica da una parte il miglioramento delle effettive condizioni di vita delle persone, dall’altra determina però la fine delle culture popolari italiane in favore di un’unica cultura centralizzata fondata su un modello esterno di origine statunitense. D’altra parte Pasolini ha una visione fortemente ideologizzata e negativa della civiltà dei consumi, che definisce come il «più repressivo totalitarismo che si sia mai visto»6 e alla quale sente la necessita di opporre una battaglia politica prima ancora che culturale fondata sui principi di una rivoluzione proletaria e contadina. Il concetto di mutazione antropologica coniato da Pasolini sarà ripreso da scrittori del decennio successivo. Tra di essi un punto di vista privilegiato è quello del siciliano Vincenzo Consolo. Privilegiato perché è quello di uno scrittore attento ai contrasti insiti e ai cambiamenti storici della sua terra, la Sicilia. In Limitatezza della storia e immensità del mondo contadino Pasolini parlava di un «illimitato mondo contadino prenazionale e preindustriale, sopravvissuto fino a solo pochi anni fa»7, per il quale gli stati preunitari, l’Italia unita, l’Italia fascista e l’Italia democratica hanno rappresentato senza soluzione di continuità la nazione estranea, l’altro e l’oppressore. Consolo, dal canto suo, tornerà a parlare di quel mondo contadino in termini mitici, come «di tempi andati, di tempi d’oro, tempi che sono durati fino all’altro ieri»8, e descriverà le rivolte dei siciliani di fronte al potere La raccolta postuma La mia isola è Las Vegas raccoglie testi brevi pubblicati nel corso degli anni da Consolo su vari giornali e fondamentali per capire l’evoluzione del pensiero dello scrittore così come la genesi 3 borbonico, all’unificazione, al Fascismo e all’Italia dopoguerra, per arrivare alla fine di quel mondo che pure aveva fatto in tempo a conoscere da bambino e che aveva descritto in alcuni racconti degli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta9. In due racconti tardi, pubblicati per la prima volta nel 2007 e nel 2008 e poi inclusi nella raccolta La mia isola è Las Vegas, Consolo cita direttamente il concetto pasoliniano di mutazione antropologica. In Alésia al tempo de Li Causi, parlando degli anni in cui studiava a Milano, l’autore scrive: Erano quelli gli anni della fine del mondo contadino e della rapida trasformazione dell’Italia in Paese neo-industriale, del miracolo economico e della mutazione antropologica; gli anni, quelli dell’espulsione dal Paese di milioni e milioni di lavoratori in cerca d’un futuro, d’un destino migliore. 10 Mentre nel racconto E Ciro vide Anna Magnani, riferendosi agli stessi anni, scrive: Era quello il momento della fine del mondo contadino, del fallimento della riforma agraria in Sicilia, della vittoria dei feudatari, eterni Gattopardi, e dei loro sovrastanti o gabelloti mafiosi. Era il momento quello che Pasolini poi chiamò della “mutazione antropologica” di questo nostro Paese.11 L’attenzione dello scrittore al tema della mutazione risale almeno agli anni Ottanta ed è legata all’osservazione del fenomeno dell’emigrazione di massa dei siciliani verso il nord Italia, dovuta all’irruzione delle nuove tecniche di produzione che mettono fine a tradizioni che in Sicilia, oltre ad essere millenarie, rivestivano un forte ruolo identitario, come quella della coltivazione degli aranci o della pesca del tonno12. In un racconto del 1985 dedicato al tema dell’emigrazione a Milano, Consolo parlerà del sud come di una terra «dove la storia si è conclusa»13. La mutazione antropologica rappresenta nella narrativa consoliana una cesura netta e su di essa lo scrittore fonda la funzione etica della propria scrittura. Se il mondo globalizzato digerisce nel suo ventre le culture particolari, se la cultura del centro progressivamente sostituisce le culture periferiche, il compito della letteratura è quello di narrare ciò che non c’è più. In questo senso fortemente significativi sono alcuni personaggi della sezione Persone della raccolta del 1989 Le Pietre di Pantalica, attraverso i quali Consolo prova a raccontare il momento di passaggio, l’attimo della fine, attraverso le figure di chi tentò di opporvisi. Antonino Uccello, poeta-etnologo amico di Consolo, cerca di salvare le vestigia di ciò che sta finendo, raccogliendo gli strumenti e le testimonianze del mondo contadino; oggetti che trova abbandonati, relitti della storia, il cui unico destino è quello di essere musealizzati. In un’intervista Consolo accosterà il proprio compito a quello dell’amico: di alcune delle sue opere. 4 Il poeta-etnologo de La casa di Icaro, credo che sia il personaggio più importante, la figura-simbolo di tutto il libro. È stato uno, Uccello, che, come un pietoso raccoglitore di detriti dopo la risacca, ha cercato di salvare, nel momento in cui essi sparivano, i resti, le testimonianze del mondo contadino. E non è questo in fondo il dovere e il destino di ogni scrittore della mia età e della mia estrazione, che si è trovato a cavallo della grande trasformazione, tra un mondo che spariva e un mondo che iniziava? Non è questo il compito e il destino sempre, in ogni epoca, di uno scrittore: raccogliere e custodire memorie, reliquie di un mondo che continuamente frana, sparisce?14 Ad un’altra Sicilia che va scomparendo, quella magica e barocca, sognante e mitologica, rimanda invece la figura del barone Lucio Piccolo, poeta fuori dalle mode e fuori dal tempo, simbolo di un’erudizione che ci ricorda quella di Mandralisca de Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio. Piccolo fu amico e mentore di Consolo, che in queste pagine racconta il loro primo incontro, gli insegnamenti, le visite nella casa di Capo d’Orlando. Come Uccello, Piccolo è emblema di un mondo che non esiste più, tanto che nel momento della sua scomparsa il dolore che Consolo prova non è solo per la perdita dell’amico e maestro, ma anche «per un mondo, un passato, una cultura, una civiltà che con lui se ne andavano»15. Andando ancora indietro, Consolo risale ai tempi in cui quel mondo esisteva, con i suoi riti e le sue usanze, con la sua cultura, quella cultura popolare rivendicata come tale da Pasolini, contro tutti quegli intellettuali che la relegavano agli strati prerazionali. Consolo ci racconta le lotte di quel mondo, le rivolte e le battaglie per la sua sopravvivenza, in molti racconti de Le Pietre di Pantalica e in alcuni di quelli poi confluiti ne La mia isola è Las Vegas, così come nei romanzi, basti pensare alle rivolte di Alcara Li Fusi narrate ne Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio. Come afferma Flora Di Legami la scrittura di Consolo viaggia nel passato storico per isolarne travagli umani e sociali da depositare poi sulla pagina. E questa si dispone come archivio memoriale di un mondo, quello popolare (con i suoi tipi e le sue tradizioni), che non esiste più, e che non si conoscerebbe se non ci fosse un aedo delle microstorie o dell’antistoria pronto ad assumere su di sé il compito di narrare quanto è andato disperso.16 Anche per quanto riguarda il discorso sull’evoluzione linguaggio nell’epoca della mutazione antropologica Consolo sembra essere in linea con quanto Pasolini diceva in Limitatezza della storia e immensità del mondo contadino: Dal punto di vista del linguaggio verbale, si ha la riduzione di tutta la lingua a lingua comunicativa, con un enorme impoverimento dell’espressività. I dialetti (gli idiomi materni!) sono allontanati nel tempo e nello spazio: i figli sono costretti a non parlarli più perché vivono a Torino, a Milano o in Germania. Là dove si parlano ancora, essi hanno totalmente perso ogni loro potenzialità inventiva.17 Il discorso di Consolo sulla lingua è più profondo di quello di Pasolini, non si limita solo a un recupero linguistico di tipo dialettale, ma allarga la propria ricerca e l’operazione di salvataggio anche al piano diacronico e ai diversi livelli d’uso della lingua, restituendo sulla pagina una grande dose di ricchezza e invenzione verbale, contro l’appiattimento del linguaggio letterario su quello dei media. 5 La mutazione antropologica sfocia dunque in Sicilia nell’emigrazione di massa, che riflette il vuoto successivo alla fine del mondo contadino e le difficoltà della nascita di una nuova società. Lo stesso senso di vuoto è percepibile anche dove quella società riesce a prendere piede, nella Pianura Padana descritta da Gianni Celati nei suoi resoconti di viaggio di Verso la foce e nei racconti degli anni Ottanta. In questo caso lo svuotamento si riflette sulle persone e sul paesaggio determinando una descrizione in cui la parola stessa diventa scarna ed essenziale e il paesaggio postindustriale ci mostra quanto la nuova società derivata dalla mutazione abbia in realtà un carattere effimero e transitorio. A differenza dello sguardo politicizzato di Pasolini e di quello partecipe di Consolo, Celati si pone dal punto di vista dell’osservatore anonimo, lasciando la centralità dell’evocazione all’immagine nuda. Una tecnica che gli viene dalla frequentazione, nei primi anni Ottanta, di quei fotografi raggruppati intorno alla figura Luigi Ghirri, i quali si proponevano di registrare attraverso il loro lavoro la mutazione del paesaggio italiano. Nell’introduzione a Verso la foce Celati definisce questi diari di viaggio come «racconti d’osservazione»18 e specifica meglio il tipo di osservazione necessaria e lo scopo che intende perseguire: Ogni osservazione ha bisogno di liberarsi dai codici familiari che porta con sé, ha bisogno di andare alla deriva in mezzo a tutto ciò che non si capisce, per poter arrivare ad una foce, dove dovrà sentirsi smarrita.19 L’osservazione di Celati non ha dunque un fine consolatorio, parte dallo straniamento e arriva allo spaesamento, ma solo così lo scrittore sente di poter rendere il senso ultimo di quel «deserto di solitudine»20 che si trova ad attraversare durante le sue peregrinazioni. Celati descrive il paesaggio padano svuotato della sua storicità in seguito a una mutazione di cui rimangono solo ruderi. Anche qui, come nella Sicilia descritta da Consolo, permangono relitti di una storia che non c’è più, che entrano in contrasto con le superfetazioni della modernità. L’esempio più evidente sono forse le corti, fattorie tipiche di queste zone, ora abbandonate: Ho sbirciato in un paio di quei cortili, c’erano strumenti agricoli abbandonati e paglia per terra. Gli abitanti delle corti sono andati tutti a vivere in quelle vilette geometrili sparse nelle campagne, e il bestiame è stato traslocato in grandi capannoni industriali.21 Di fronte alla piattezza e all’omologazione delle costruzioni moderne, le corti presentano una grande varietà di soluzioni architettoniche, che cambia da una provincia all’altra. I segni dell’antica bellezza non sono solo nelle corti, ma si possono ravvisare anche in alcuni centri storici, come in quello di Casalmaggiore Vedo strade girovaganti, portici e palazzi scrostati, finché non si arriva nelle stradine dietro il palazzo municipale, e da lì nella piazza centrale. […] Dalla piazza, ripassando per stradine un po’ in salita dietro il municipio, si arriva all’argine del Po. Accanto a una vecchia porta della città, la fila irregolare di palazzi sette-ottocenteschi, ognuno con facciata e forma e altezza 6 diverse, movimenti di linee senza mai forti squadrature, segue l’andamento sinuoso dell’argine e del fiume che si allarga in prospettiva.22 La differenza tra antico e moderno è dunque per Celati prima di tutto una questione di linee e di forme. A Codigoro lo scrittore osserva le case dalle facciate veneziane e le villette in stile liberty disposte lungo il canale, elementi che «formano davvero un luogo» e mostrano che qui «il tempo è diventato forma dello spazio, un aspetto è cresciuto a poco a poco sull’altro, come le rughe sulla nostra pelle»23. A ciò si oppone la fine del tempo, fine della storia e le forme geometrizzanti rappresentate dagli elementi della modernità, che minacciano i luoghi antichi: le industrie, che finiscono per costituire delle nuove città; i centri commerciali, che nel giro di pochi anni stravolgono il paesaggio; le strutture turistiche, presenti persino nelle zone più solitarie della foce del fiume; i cartelloni pubblicitari, che ostruiscono la visuale sostituendosi al paesaggio; infine, le nuove tipologie abitative dell’omologazione, le villette a schiera. La mutazione antropologica descritta da Celati non interessa solo il paesaggio, ma lo scrittore si sofferma anche sulle modalità di vita. L’alienazione dei luoghi rispecchia quelle delle persone. I nuovi non-luoghi creati dalla società di consumo, che di lì a qualche anno saranno teorizzati da Marc Augé, sono occupati da delle non-persone, svuotate anch’esse di storicità e private della diversità in favore dell’omologazione imposta24. In Acculturazione e acculturazione Pasolini si chiedeva se le persone sarebbero davvero riuscite a realizzare il modello imposto dalla cultura di massa e si rispondeva: No. O lo realizzano materialmente solo in parte, diventandone la caricatura, o non riescono a realizzarlo che in misura così minima da diventarne vittime. Frustrazione o addirittura ansia nevrotica sono ormai stati d’animo collettivi.25 In questo senso va anche l’osservazione compiuta da Gianni Celati sui luoghi dell’abitare che la mutazione antropologica impone agli abitanti della pianura, le villette a schiera che ricorrono come leitmotiv di queste pagine. Celati riprende le teorie dell’abitare espresse da Bachelard negli degli anni Cinquanta, adattandole al nuovo contesto depersonalizzato successivo alla mutazione antropologica. Le villette diventano allora simbolo stesso dell’alienazione postindustriale dei luoghi descritti, simbolo di un tentativo falso e illusorio di nascondersi della «vita piena di pena»26 e di non vedere «l’orizzonte pesantissimo pieno di camion e maiali»27: Quelle case non hanno volto, hanno solo aperture di sicurezza e superfici protettive dietro cui si va a nascondere. Si esce a vedere se in giro è tutto normale, poi si torna a nascondersi nelle tane.28 Se i luoghi precedentemente descritti da Celati mostrano una stratificazione del tempo e delle epoche, qui il tempo risulta sospeso, nelle villette le persone si autoesiliano involontariamente dal7 proprio tempo. Nel 1957 Gaston Bachelard ne La poetica dello spazio descriveva la casa come il luogo dove le persone si rifugiano a seguito dell’aumento di importanza della vita pubblica determinato dal progresso economico e tecnologico29. Se in Bachelard il senso di protezione evocato dalla casa ha ancora un valore positivo, Celati ci presenta trent’anni dopo i risultati di quel processo e ripropone in chiave negativa la visione della casa come rifugio. La mutazione antropologica cambia insomma i luoghi e le persone che li abitano. Raccontare la mutazione antropologica significa per gli scrittori raccontare la realtà in un momento in cui il realismo sembra essere una via non più percorribile. Ciò rende necessaria una riflessione e un lavoro da parte degli scrittori sulle forme e sui generi. Se Pasolini sceglie la via di una poesia per metà dialettale e per metà italiana per trasfigurare in forma artistica ciò che andava scrivendo nei suoi saggi, Consolo opta invece da una parte sulla rifondazione del romanzo storico su basi antiromanzesche e dall’altra sull’inserimento dell’elemento autobiografico all’interno delle strutture finzionali del racconto. Celati, infine, sceglie il diario di viaggio, un diario di viaggio denso di narratività e riflessioni, che fungono da punto di partenza per i racconti veri e propri di Narratori delle pianure e per le Quattro novelle sulle apparenze. Si nota insomma come la mutazione antropologica sia stata un motore, forse primo, che spinse gli scrittori a un ripensamento delle forme, quel ripensamento che culminerà nei nuovi realismi e nella fioritura della nonfiction a partire dagli anni Novanta, ma che affonda le basi sui grandi cambiamenti antropologici e sociologici che hanno interessato il mondo e l’Italia nella seconda metà del Novecento.

***

1 A. BERARDINELLI, Premessa, in P.P. PASOLINI, Scritti Corsari, Milano, Garzanti, 2000, p. X. 2 Ivi, VIII.
3 PASOLINI, Acculturazione e acculturazione, in ID., Scritti corsari…, 22-23. 4 PASOLINI, Studio sulla rivoluzione antropologica in Italia, in Scritti corsari…, 40. L’articolo era uscito per la prima
volta sul «Corriere della Sera» il 10 giugno 1974 col titolo Gli italiani non sono più quelli. 5 Ivi, 41. 6 PASOLINI, Limitatezza della storia e immensità del mondo contadino, in Scritti corsari, 53-54. L’articolo viene pubblicato l’8 luglio 1974 su «Paese sera» come lettera aperta in risposta a Italo Calvino.
7 Ivi, 53. 8 V. CONSOLO, Arancio, sogno e nostalgia, in ID., La mia isola è Las Vegas, a cura di N. Messina, Milano, Mondadori, 2012, 133. Il racconto è pubblicato per la prima volta su «Sicilia Magazine» nel dicembre d
el 1988. Cfr. D. RAFFINI, La mia isola è Las Vegas: laboratorio e testamento letterario, in A.
Frabetti e L. Toppan (a cura di), Studi per Vincenzo Consolo. Come lo scrivere può forse cambiare il mondo,
«Recherches», n. 21, automne 2018, 129-142. 9 Si fa riferimento in particolare ai racconti Un sacco di magnolie, Befana di novembre, Grandine come neve e Triangolo e
luna, riproposti anch’essi nella raccolta La mia isola è Las Vegas. 10 CONSOLO, Alèsia al tempo di Li Causi, in ID., La mia isola…, 226. 11 ID., E Ciro vide Anna Magnani, in ID., La mia isola…, 229. 12 Alla coltivazione degli aranci Consolo dedica il già citato racconto Arancio, sogno e nostalgia; mentre sul tema
delle tonnare è il saggio La pesca del tonno pubblicato nella raccolta Di qua dal faro. 13 CONSOLO, Porta Venezia, in ID., La mia isola…, 113. 14 CONSOLO, L’opera completa, a cura di G. Turchetta, Milano, Mondadori, 2015, 1388. 15 ID., Piccolo grande Gattopardo, in ID., La mia isola…, 214. 16 F. DI LEGAMI, Vincenzo Consolo, Marina di Patti, Pungitopo, 1990, 10. 17 PASOLINI, Limitatezza della storia e immensità del mondo contadino, in ID., Scritti corsari…, 54. 18 G. CELATI, Verso la foce, Milano, Feltrinelli, 2011, 9. 19 Ivi, 10. 20 Ivi, 9. 21 Ivi, 32. 22 Ivi, 38-39. 23 Ivi, 95. 24 Secondo la definizione di Augé: «Se un luogo può definirci some identitario, relazionale, storico, uno spazio
che non può definirsi né identitario né relazionale né storico, definirà un nonluogo» (M. AUGÉ, Nonluoghi.
Introduzione a una antropologia della surmodernità, Milano, Elèuthera, 1993, 73). 25 PASOLINI, Acculturazione…, 23. 26 CELATI, Verso la foce…, 35. 27 Ivi, 31. 28 Ivi, 94.
29 Cfr. G. BACHELARD, La poetica dello spazio, Bari, Dedalo, 1975, 31-45

Natura Società Letteratura, Atti del XXII Congresso
dell’ADI – Associazione degli Italianisti (Bologna, 13-15 settembre 2018),
a cura di A. Campana e F. Giunta,
Roma, Adi editore, 2020



Vincenzo Consolo e Andrea Zanzotto: un «archeologo della lingua» e un «botanico di grammatiche»

Laura Toppan.

Nella conversazione  Le Pietre di Pantalica – uscita sul Corriere della Sera del 13 febbraio 1989 –, Consolo risponde che la sua «consonanza con Zanzotto è evidente». Una consonanza stilistico-formale, con la sola differenza che il poeta di Pieve di Soligo l’ha declinata in poesia e Consolo in prosa. Zanzotto è un poeta che egli ha «moltissimo amato e letto» e va da sé che la stima profonda fosse reciproca, a giudicare anche, come vedremo, dal tono della recensione di Zanzotto e dall’omaggio esplicito di Consolo allo stesso poeta ne Lo Spasimo di Palermo (1998). I due autori si sono frequentati poco, ma ‘studiati’ da lontano, con un’attenzione costante al lavoro dell’altro. Due autori profondamente diversi, ma animati entrambi dalla volontà di resistere alla mercificazione e alla corruzione del linguaggio e di tentare l’ardua impresa di restituire una dignità alla lingua letteraria attraverso la tradizione, rinnovandola e, in un certo senso, ‘stravolgendola’ anche, quella tradizione che il Gruppo ’63 cercava in qualche modo di ‘azzerare’ e da cui sia Consolo che Zanzotto si sentivano lontanissimi, seppur ne fossero incuriositi, e con cui si dovettero comunque misurare.

2Dal confronto / scontro con i “Novissimi” si sono quindi ‘sprigionati’ due percorsi molto originali, in linea più con il Pasolini (2000: 5-24) delle Nuove questioni linguistiche del ’64, che con i Neoavanguardisti del ’63. Nel suo saggio Pasolini non si proponeva di definire un modello ideale di lingua nazionale, ma si concentrava piuttosto su un’analisi socio-linguistica del contesto italiano del dopoguerra e in particolare degli anni del boom economico. Egli vedeva nell’italiano della nuova civiltà industriale delle trasformazioni portate dall’arrivo del lessico tecnico, tipico del settore industriale. In effetti, mentre dal dopoguerra sino agli anni Sessanta aveva prevalso piuttosto l’asse delle parlate Roma-Napoli, a partire dagli anni Sessanta in poi prevarrà soprattutto quello dell’asse Milano-Torino, polo industriale attrattivo per tutta una massa di persone provenienti dall’Est e dal Nord del paese. Pasolini registrava quindi la cessazione, per l’italiano, dell’osmosi con il latino e intuiva che la guida della lingua non sarebbe più stata la letteratura, ma la tecnica, che il fine della lingua sarebbe ora rientrato nel ciclo produzione-consumo. Contro queste trasformazioni Pasolini cerca di resistere, e così fanno Consolo e Zanzotto che, attentissimi ai mutamenti del cosiddetto italiano ‘standard’, si costruiscono un percorso tutto personale in materia di sperimentazione linguistica, di lingua poetica, diverso comunque anche dall’operazione dello stesso Pasolini. Lo scrittore siciliano infatti scriverà:

La mia sperimentazione […] non andava verso la verghiana irradiazione dialettale del codice toscano né verso la digressione dialettale di Pasolini o la degradazione polifonica di Gadda, ma verso un impasto linguistico o una “plurivocità”, come poi l’avrebbe chiamata Segre (nell’Introduzione a Il Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio), che mi permetteva di non adottare un codice linguistico imposto (Consolo 1993: 16)

  • 2 Cfr. Zanzotto 1999: 1104: «Certo anche un fenomeno come quello da loro rappresentato ha pienezza (…)

Zanzotto, dal canto suo, in un’intervista dal titolo L’italiano siamo noi (otto brevi risposte)2 del ’62 osservava:

Il latino è oggi una faglia che s’apre nel terreno discusso dell’italiano, è più un richiamo agli Inferi (come i dialetti, seppure con diverso significato) che ai Superi. (Zanzotto 1999: 1104)

Il ’62 è anche l’anno della recensione di Zanzotto in cui prende distanza dai Novissimi (Zanzotto 1999: 1105-1113), oltre che della pubblicazione di IX Ecloghe, raccolta in cui la lingua inizia ad aprirsi agli inserti che derivano dal registro scientifico tecnologico (mucillagini, cariocinesi, geyser, anancasma, macromolecola) e che convivono con latinismi, arcaismi, recuperi danteschi e letterari in generale. Il latino, in particolare, interviene spesso a fungere da ‘mediatore’ tra il repertorio tradizionale e la terminologia tecnica (Dal Bianco 2011: XXV).

3Fin dai loro esordi letterari, quindi, sia Consolo che Zanzotto cercano di costruirsi una lingua poetica, una lingua della creazione che attraversi tutta la tradizione letteraria italiana ed europea (ed extra-europea) risalendo verticalmente sino alle origini della/e lingua/e, in un’immersione da cui poi le parole risalgano rigenerate o vengano riscoperte. Consolo spiegherà:

[le parole] le trovo nella mia memoria, nel mio patrimonio linguistico, ma sono frutto anche di mie ricerche, di miei scavi storico-lessicali. Sin dal primo libro sono partito da una estremità linguistica, mi sono collocato, come narrante, in un’isola linguistica, in una colonia lombarda di Sicilia, San Fratello, dove si parla un antico dialetto, il gallo-italico. […] Quelle parole, irreperibili nei vocaboli italiani, hanno però una loro storia, una loro dignità filologica: la loro etimologia la si può trovare nel greco, nell’arabo, nel francese, nello spagnolo…Quei materiali lessicali li utilizzo per una mia organizzazione di suoni oltre che di significati. (Consolo 1993: 54)

  • 3 Si veda Consolo 2015: XCIX: «C’era il cognatino di un mio fratello, che era qui [a Milano], all’U (…)
  • 4 Intervista a Vincenzo Consolo: R.A.I., serie Scrittori per un anno, http://www.letteratura.rai.it (…)
  • 5 Interessanti sono gli scritti di Consolo sulla mafia, che vanno dai primi anni Settanta sino al 2 (…)

4Ma se la sperimentazione linguistica dello scrittore siciliano e del poeta di Pieve di Soligo – ormai due “classici” del secondo Novecento italiano – è un punto forte e comune, il loro percorso di vita è, potremmo dire, all’opposto. Consolo parte dalla Sicilia all’inizio degli anni Cinquanta per andare a studiare a Milano3, città che poi sceglierà per vivere e lavorare, anche perché «era la stessa in cui operava Vittorini, dove aveva passato circa un ventennio Verga nell’Ottocento e dove aveva avuto luogo la rivoluzione industriale»4, secondo le parole dello stesso Consolo in un’intervista per la R.A.I. della serie Scrittori per un anno. Il capoluogo lombardo diventa il luogo privilegiato da cui osservare la propria isola e il mondo, con continue partenze e ritorni tra Nord e Sud e frequenti viaggi all’estero, per quella sua necessità irrefrenabile di movimento spaziale, nel tentativo di capire e di interpretare i grandi eventi epocali: le nuove migrazioni, le ingiustizie, le connivenze, come il fenomeno mafioso a cui Consolo dedicherà molte riflessioni5. La scrittura diventa quindi un’arma per opporsi ai poteri, denuncia contro i mali del nostro tempo. Zanzotto, al contrario, rimane praticamente ‘stanziale’ per tutta la vita, se escludiamo brevi soggiorni a Milano e il periodo in cui partì per la Svizzera tra il ’46 e il ’47 per un’esperienza di lavoro: entro il perimetro geografico della sua Pieve, ai piedi delle Alpi trevigiane e attorniato dal paesaggio dei colli, egli osserva il mondo locale e globale, cercando di interpretarne i cambiamenti. Questo piccolo centro, la sua Pieve, ha rappresentato non il punto fermo di un universo in movimento, ma un luogo che il poeta ha visto ‘girare e muoversi’ secondo ritmi sempre più rapidi, sino a diventare quasi irriconoscibile, inghiottito dalla mostruosa conurbazione che va dal Garda al Friuli e che è chiamata «la Los Angeles veneta». In Consolo, invece, sarà la sua isola, la Sicilia, ad essere sempre il punto di partenza: «Io porto in me questo unico punto del mondo, questo paese» (Consolo 2014: 137-138), e aggiunge:

  • 6 Cfr. lo scritto Memorie, in Consolo 2014.

Mi sono ispirato, narrando, a questo mio paese, mi sono allontanato da lui per narrare altre storie, di altri paesi, di altre forme. Però sempre, in quel poco che ho scritto, ho fatalmente portato con me i segni incancellabili di questo luogo. (Consolo 2014: 135)6

  • 7 Zanzotto 1999: CXIII-CXIV: «[…] terminato l’anno scolastico [il poeta] ’45-’46 decide di emigrare (…)

E il narrare è da intendersi nell’accezione definita da Benjamin (2011) nel saggio Il narratore. Considerazioni sull’opera di Nicola Leskov, per il quale il narratore è pre-borghese (rispetto al romanziere), è colui che «riferisce di un’esperienza che ha vissuto, è soprattutto quello che viene da lontano, che ha compiuto un viaggio» . Per Zanzotto, al contrario, Pieve di Soligo è il punto da cui allontanarsi ogni tanto, ma sempre centro del suo vivere. Nei mesi dopo il 25 aprile e durante l’estate del ’45, egli si reca più volte a Milano, compiendo il viaggio su convogli di camion partigiani che, dai paesi devastati della zona intorno al Piave, erano alla ricerca di viveri e di materiali, in assenza di una rete di rifornimenti. Nel ’46, al referendum per determinare la forma di governo che dovrà guidare l’Italia postbellica e che mobilita l’opinione pubblica, Zanzotto sostiene il voto in favore della Repubblica e si troverà in contrasto con la propaganda ecclesiastica. La direzione del collegio Balbi-Valier dove ha da poco ottenuto una supplenza, fa intendere ai dipendenti il gradimento per una scelta anche politica e Zanzotto quindi, terminato l’anno scolastico ’45-’46, decide di emigrare in Svizzera, dove rimarrà per più di un anno7. Una volta rientrato nella sua Pieve, inizierà da lì il suo percorso letterario, tanto che la definizione consoliana relativa ai tanti scrittori siciliani che avevano rinunciato alla ‘fuga’ dall’isola, ovvero che appartenevano ad una «letteratura della distanza logica» (Calcaterra 2014: 33), può forse essere applicata anche all’opera del poeta del solighese. Nella conversazione con Calcaterra, Consolo affermava che «esiste una letteratura della distanza spaziale, o dell’esilio» (Calcaterra 2014: 33) e «una letteratura della distanza logica» (Calcaterra 2014: 33): per lui, ancor più incisiva della distanza spaziale è la distanza intellettuale, poiché si riesce ad «affinare una grande saggezza e lucidità rispetto alle cose» (Calcaterra 2014: 32) e al mondo che si osserva. Lucidità che Zanzotto ebbe tutto lungo il suo percorso ‘scosceso’: pensiamo solo, a titolo di esempio, al volume In questo progresso scorsoio (Zanzotto 2009) in cui il poeta, dialogando con l’amico giornalista Marzio Breda, affronta temi capitali come le emergenze climatiche e le crisi ambientali, i conflitti per l’energia e i fondamentalismi religiosi, il ‘turbocapitalismo’ in panne e l’eclissi degli idiomi minori. Per Zanzotto, agli esordi del nuovo millennio, ci troviamo immersi in un tempo che «strapiomba», in cui si aprono nuove difficili sfide di cui a volte siamo addirittura inconsapevoli. Una certa teoria del progresso, sordida e indifferente all’etica, rischia così di portarci verso l’autodistruzione.

5Pur con dodici anni di differenza – Zanzotto nato nel ’21 e Consolo nel ’33 – entrambi vivranno in prima persona il trauma della Seconda Guerra Mondiale: Consolo prima da bambino, sotto i bombardamenti degli Americani sulla Sicilia nell’estate del ’43, in particolare a Palermo e a Messina; in seguito da sfollato, e poi tramite i giochi pericolosi delle bombe e delle mine disseminate sul territorio che lasceranno tracce indelebili nella sua memoria. Zanzotto invece, all’epoca della Seconda Guerra Mondiale, è poco più che ventenne e partecipa in prima persona alla Resistenza veneta nelle Brigate di “Giustizia e Libertà” occupandosi della stampa e della propaganda del movimento. Si era formata la Brigata Mazzini che, pur essendo sotto il controllo del Partito Comunista, accoglieva anche altre forze antifasciste e Zanzotto, avendo deciso di non far uso delle armi, partecipò alla realizzazione di manifesti e fogli informativi. Nell’inverno del ’44 Pieve di Soligo diventa una sorta di campo di concentramento e il poeta viene reclutato a forza e inviato al lavoro coatto. Nel ’45 riprenderà l’attività partigiana di propaganda sulle colline e in quel periodo non scriverà quasi nulla, tranne qualche frammento diaristico e una poesia per i morti fucilati del paese (Zanzotto 1999: CXII). Gli scontri continuano sino al 30 aprile, data a partire dalla quale la zona viene liberata dalle truppe alleate e si avvia verso il processo di normalizzazione.

6Le tracce della guerra nei Nostri si trasmisero anche attraverso i padri: il padre di Consolo era stato in prima linea sul Carso nella Guerra del ’15-’18, mentre il padre di Zanzotto, pittore-decoratore, a causa delle sue posizioni apertamente antifasciste era dovuto partire per l’esilio in Francia nel ’25 e nel ’26 e, successivamente, a Santo Stefano di Cadore, in montagna. La Storia entra quindi violentemente nella vita dei due autori e segnerà profondamente la loro opera, anche per contrasto al fenomeno della cancellazione della memoria del nostro tempo che entrambi hanno denunciato in più occasioni in varie interviste. Consolo affermava che funzione della letteratura rimane quello di portare alla luce le verità nascoste, di svelare, smascherare, denunciare. Lo scrittore deve riscoprire la forza della parolaverticalizzare la scritturarenderla più possibile densa e pregna di significatitrovare strumenti più incisivi e graffianti, perché lo scandalo venga raccontato, la colpa denunciata, il misfatto scoperto, l’ingiustizia rivelata8. E il paesaggio da cui scaturisce questa parola è il testimone di questa ricerca: per Consolo è la Sicilia, con il suo Mar Mediterraneo carico di approdi e di tragedie; per Zanzotto è il Veneto, quello delle Prealpi sino alla Laguna e all’Adriatico, «luoghi ricchi di lontananze ed intrecci di tempo-spazio» (Zanzotto 2013: 142), li definisce il poeta ne La memoria della lingua, tanto che per lui:

muoversi, aggirarsi, stare […] in una di queste aree porta sempre un senso di sprofondamento, di peso sulle spalle, e insieme di spinta verso altri orizzonti, verso altezze atmosferiche e perfino stellari. (Zanzotto 2013: 142)

8Anche Consolo, probabilmente, ha avuto un senso di sprofondamento aggirandosi nella sua isola, ma è proprio da quel peso, paradossalmente, che si è mosso, che è partito verso un’avventura «archeologica» della lingua e della Storia siciliana, che è poi Storia italiana, europea, mondiale. Allo stesso modo Zanzotto, sin dall’infanzia, ha «avvertito gli spostamenti entro la geografia [veneta] come spostamenti nella storia» (Zanzotto 2013: 143), legati alla terra in modo radicale e ciò dovuto in parte «alla frequenza ossessiva delle commemorazioni della Grande Guerra» (Zanzotto 2013: 143). Di conseguenza egli si è «interiormente segnato un tracciato particolare, quello dell’ubicazione degli Ossari, che inneva la linea del Piave». Per il poeta di Pieve di Soligo, infatti:

una vera memoria è propria della lingua, prima ancora della letteratura, nelle profondità in cui diviene continuamente e continua ad essere ‘lingua nascente’ […] in contatto […] con la “fisica” antropologica e [la] geografia dell’ambiente, in continue interazioni. (Zanzotto 2013: 142)

Zanzotto cerca di recuperare la memoria della lingua e alla stessa impresa ha dedicato tutta la sua opera Consolo, come mette in evidenza Cesare Segre nel Profilo del Meridiano:

[egli] mostra […] che tutta la vicenda della Sicilia può essere riportata alla luce tramite la lingua che i siciliani, secondo i momenti, hanno usato: da quella dei Greci delle colonie, e poi dei Romani, a quella dei poeti di corte sotto Federico II, sino a quella degli scrittori delle classi subalterne. (Segre 2015: XX-XXI)

Ecco allora che, attraverso il plurilinguismo, Consolo apre degli orizzonti verso i momenti significativi della storia siciliana: «archeologo della lingua» o «delle lingue», egli scava in altri dialetti siciliani e nell’italiano per riportare alla luce significati perduti, originari, con innesti da varie lingue. La sua sperimentazione si svolge sia sul piano della storia che della lingua nelle sue diverse stratificazioni (Domenico 2014: 53). E sempre secondo Segre:

ciò che tiene insieme questo plurilinguismo è un fatto musicale, [grazie alla] tecnica del pastiche [e al ricorso di] frammenti [di] altre [e numerose] lingue. (Segre 2015: XXI)

  • 9 Intervista a Vincenzo Consolo: R.A.I., serie Scrittori per un anno, http://www.letteratura.rai.it

9Gianni Turchetta, inoltre, nella sua ricchissima Introduzione al Meridiano, evidenzia che «il dialetto siciliano è di norma italianizzato e l’italiano spesso sicilianizzato» (Turchetta 2015: XXXI), mentre in un’intervista Consolo precisa che in Sicilia esistono sette aree linguistiche di gallo-italico, ovvero dialetti che sono arrivati con i Normanni e quindi con residui di lombardo9. Di conseguenza:

gli strati siciliani della lingua di Consolo attingono ad un’impressionante molteplicità di varietà locali: [il] siciliano orientale, che ha più riconoscibili radici greco-bizantine […]: [il] sanfratellano, […] oltre al toscano, al napoletano e al milanese. (Turchetta 2015: XXXI)

  • 10 Il sabir era chiamata anche petit mauresqueferenghi‘ajnabi o aljamia. Il nome sabir è forse u (…)
  • 11 Per le citazioni dalle opere di Consolo (dal «Meridiano»), ricorriamo alle seguenti abbreviazioni (…)

Si tratta di «lacerti di lingue vive e morte, corrette o deformate: il greco classico, il latino classico, liturgico e medioevale, il francese, lo spagnolo, l’inglese, l’arabo, il sabir10» (Turchetta 2015: XXXI), che è la lingua franca del Mediterraneo. Diamo qui solo qualche esempio11: per il latino della liturgia, «Regem venturum Dominum / Venite Adoremus / Ecce Dominus veniet, et erit in die illa lux magna» (FA: 8); per il greco, «Agios o Théos / Agios ischirós / Agios athanós, / eléison imás» (FA: 76); «chiocciola, kochlías nella lingua greca, còchlea nella latina» (S: 235); per il francese, «Montesquieu, nel suo essé titolato Esprit des lois» (R: 445); per lo spagnolo, uno dei personaggi principali, Doña Sol, è spagnola: «También, Madre de Dios?! Hombre sin nervio, debilidad, ságoma sin vida, sombra sin consistencia, ausencia, lástima de mi vida, cojón de algodón!» (L: 278); per l’inglese, «(Broccolino, Broccolino), che alla lunga identificai con Brooklyn» (PP: 493); per un mélange di francese e di arabo, parlato da un tunisino in Sicilia, «E l’alìve? Sitròn e alìve. E tomasso, pecorino ‘o puavr’». (PP: 502); per l’arabo, «Inshallah» (R: 440) e per un dialogo a più lingue (PP: 569):

«Alò» gli fece uno dei giovinotti per rompere il silenzio e l’imbarazzo. «Hallo» gli rispose Robert. «Do you speak english?» Silenzio dall’altra parte. «Habla español?» Silenzio. «Parlez-vous français?» «Moi, je parle français» rispose il Piancimòre. «Êtes-vous allé en France?» «Non, je suis allé en Belgique, à travailler, dans les mines» «…» «Et êtes-vous américain?» «Non, non, je suis hongrois, mais j’habite en France.» «Ah, la France, le pays de Prudhon et de Victor Hugo!» escalamó il Pinciamòre. «Oui, de Proudhon, de Hugo et bien d’autres…» rispose Robert ridendo apertamente. Ma capì subito di fronte a chi si trovava, e pensò, guardando la faccia del suo interlocutore, ai contadini catalani di Durruti, ai duri minatori delle Asturie. «Dites-moi, était-il de ce pays le cardinal Mazarin?» chiese il francese. «Bah, ici il n’y a jamais eu un cardinal, mais seulement des prêtres, des religieuses et des capucins. Nous en avons déjà assez!» Robert gli tese la mano sorridendo e l’altro gliela strinse. «Au revoir» disse «au revoir» «Au revoir» rispose il Pinciamòre «Vive la France!» «Oh…Vive le monde tout entier!» disse Robert. (Consolo 2015: 569)

10Consolo ricorre poi a una pluralità di termini appartenenti ad una lista impressionante di settori, quali «la pesca, la marineria, la botanica, l’agricoltura, la zoologia, la cucina, l’architettura, la tessitura, la medicina e l’astronomia» (Turchetta 2015: XXXII), solo per citarne alcuni, e in questi «impasti linguistici, la lingua di Consolo lavora sistematicamente e progressivamente sugli estremi» (Turchetta 2015: XXXII), passando dall’aulico, all’iper-letterario al registro più basso e familiare («il bambino con la testa a vaporino grufolava per terra, agitava le mani e tirava sgrigne soffocate», FA: 51; «sulle ginocchia e sul didietro», FA: 13; «ci dissero cacati e, per l’invidia, ci presero a sfottò», FA: 15; «o stronzo, o merda!…e calci e cinque franchi», FA: 15; «Si vede nu cazzu!», S: 152), e anche se con il tempo il suo sperimentalismo vira verso il tragico, il registro comico, ironico, rimane comunque sempre presente come sottobosco; quell’ironia che fa capolino sin dal primo libro, La ferita dell’aprile: «Puressa, puressa, primavera di bellessa» (FA: 13); «zanglé…sta piova, lesanglé, non inglesi, ma normanni», (FA: 24). E il carattere predominante nei saggi critici e nella poesia di Zanzotto, come per esempio ne La Beltà, raccolta uscita nel 1968 in pieno boom economico, è proprio l’ironia, che si trasforma in aperta comicità o in sarcasmo (come nel componimento Sì ancora la neve: “per voi bimbi con diritto / e programma di pappa, per tutti / ferocemente tutti, voi (sniff sniff / gnam gnam yum yum slurp slurp: / perché sempre si continui l’«umbra fuimus fumo e fumetto»); «colorini più o meno truffaldini») (Zanzotto 2001: 240).

11Il plurilinguismo di Zanzotto, inteso come la messa in opera di elementi appartenenti a diverse lingue e di una pluralità di voci, dialoganti o meno, può esser considerato, secondo Jean Nimis, «una delle caratteristiche ‘fondanti’ della poetica dell’autore» (Nimis 2018: 23). Si tratta di un fenomeno ancora in nuce fino a Vocativo (’57), che diventa esplicito a partire dalla raccolta IX Ecloghe (’62), per poi prendere tutta la sua forza ne La Beltà (’68), ne Gli sguardi i fatti e i Senhal (’69) e in Pasque (’73), in cui la commistione di lingue, linguaggi e voci genera una musicalità molto particolare, ovvero «quel grain de la voix di cui parlava Roland Barthes» – suggerisce Nimis (2018: 23) – e che contraddistingue la poetica zanzottiana. A questa raccolta si deve aggiungere anche il Filò (del ’76), in un dialetto intessuto della koiné veneta. La poesia di Zanzotto è stata una vera e propria «esperienza di linguaggio» – secondo una formula di Stefano Agosti – e dunque un’esperienza sul e nel linguaggio e possiamo attribuire la stessa formula al lavoro letterario di Consolo, che ha realizzato un’escursione a largo raggio verso le origini del linguaggio.

12Anche il plurilinguismo di Zanzotto, come quello di Consolo, riguarda l’uso di varie lingue: l’italiano; il latino, che secondo Dal Bianco, dalla raccolta Vocativo (1957) in poi rappresenta la lingua della Storia, con tutta la sua portata di terrore, soprattutto quando è accompagnata dal lessico scientifico (Dal Bianco 2018: 41); il dialetto, che è la lingua dell’inconscio, la lingua materna e della madre (l’uso del dialetto in Zanzotto esplode dopo il ’73, ovvero dopo la morte della madre), ma che ad un certo punto, in Idioma (1986), diventa la lingua dei morti; il greco, in particolare quello dei Vangeli e di San Paolo, utilizzato quindi come lingua dell’alterità massima, della Natura; il francese, che in genere compare in citazioni letterarie; il tedesco, che è la lingua dell’abbrutimento nazista e al tempo stesso il sublime di Hölderlin – uno dei modelli più alti in poesia –, quindi lingua «dell’antiumano e della somma umanità» (Dal Bianco 2018: 41-43); l’ungherese, che entra nell’ultima raccolta, Conglomerati (2009), in particolare nel componimento Silvia, Silvia, là sul confine… (Zanzotto 2011: 1041-1042), dedicata alla figlia del poeta Cecchinel, morta in giovane età, che studiava lingua e letteratura ungherese all’università di Venezia («Jó estét, kisasszoni!», che significa «Buonasera Signorina!»).

  • 12 Breda 2012: 3.

13Dal Bianco osserva che, a partire dalla trilogia di Zanzotto ch’egli ha definito «dell’Oltremondo» (Dal Bianco 2018: 43), ovvero Meteo (1996), Sovrimpressioni (2001) e Conglomerati (2009), gli inserti delle varie lingue a cui ricorre Zanzotto giocano in un certo senso al ribasso, ovvero ad un «abbassamento di registro». Alle lingue già citate si aggiunge l’inglese, la lingua disprezzata (perché in Italia è quella della pubblicità, della mercificazione) ma che negli anni Ottanta, dopo un lungo periodo di depressione e di afasia, sorge dal profondo per la composizione di pseudo-haiku: Zanzotto dirà che fiorivano spontaneamente, come degli zampilli improvvisi provenienti da qualche luogo recondito della psiche, da un fondo oscuro e fangoso, quasi delle bolle, a testimonianza del fatto che nonostante il deserto doloroso della malattia, un’oasi salvatrice, una fonte di creazione esisteva ancora. Nel saggio Europa, melograno di lingue, il poeta definisce l’inglese «una lingua vulcanica, […] che non può non stimolare alle grandi arrampicate» (Zanzotto 2011: 45), e il suo è un inglese petèl, come lui stesso l’ha definito, ovvero quello dei bambini piccoli che iniziano a parlare: ricorrendo ad elementi minimi della fonologia inglese, Zanzotto spiega «che gli pseudo-haiku gli si congegnavano un po’ alla volta, si coagulavano quasi da sé, grazie alla spinta allitterativa così caratteristica di questa lingua» (Zanzotto 2011: 45). Egli aveva provato a tradurre quei frammenti in italiano, ma restavano in qualche modo sminuiti; e si era anche industriato a tradurli in francese, ma senza grandi risultati e quindi vi aveva rinunciato. Gli riuscivano bene in inglese e non sapeva nemmeno lui bene il perché: partiva forse da una citazione molto conosciuta e da lì nasceva un vero haiku. Solo in un secondo momento li tradurrà in italiano e verranno pubblicati postumi in edizione bilingue negli Stati Uniti: Haiku for a season / Haiku per una stagione (Zanzotto 2012)12.

14La lingua poetica di Zanzotto ricorre inoltre, come la prosa consoliana, a vari lessici specifici appartenenti a numerosissime e svariate discipline, come la medicina, la psicanalisi, la botanica, l’astrofisica, la matematica, l’astronomia, la geologia, l’ottica, oltre ad elementi espressivi connessi all’uso dei linguaggi, come il balbettio rappresentato, gli ideogrammi, i disegni e gli scarabocchi (qualificabili tutti come «iconografie»), i disegni e i collages che accompagnano i testi (cfr. Dal Bianco 2011). E molto importante è anche la dimensione sonora, ove i segni sulla pagina bianca sono da considerarsi come delle ‘scansioni’, dei ‘segnali metronomici’, delle ‘pause’: indicazioni ritmiche per un’interpretazione musicale. Il suo procedere mette in atto un dispositivo sonoro molto denso, costituito da onomatopee, spezzoni di enunciati in diverse lingue, serie di versi dal tessuto ‘acustico’: ora rumoroso, ora sussurrante, ora quasi bisbigliato. Lo stesso Montale aveva definito il poeta di Pieve di Soligo «un poeta percussivo» (Montale 1968: 338). Anche in Consolo, seppur con procedimenti diversi, vi è una «tensione verso la pronuncia fisica [delle parole] e dunque [un’]evocazione permanente dell’oralità» (Turchetta 2015: XXXV), anche perché legata ad una lingua che ha in sé una forte teatralità, quindi che ben si presta alla recitazione. E ricordiamo anche la pratica di riportare melodie e canti popolari in Consolo, così come filastrocche, proverbi e modi di dire in dialetto in Zanzotto.

15Entrambi gli autori, inoltre, scrivono quella che è stata definita una trilogia o, nel caso di Zanzotto, una «pseudo trilogia», secondo le parole dello stesso poeta: un connubio di lingua e storia, le due componenti fondamentali nell’opera dei Nostri.

16La trilogia di Consolo comprende il Sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio (’76) ambientato nel periodo del Risorgimento, un momento di grandi speranze e di grandi delusioni; Nottetempo, casa per casa (’92), che mette a confronto l’avvento del fascismo, segnato da un’estrema violenza tra Cefalù e Palermo attraverso le vicende della famiglia Marano e, allo stesso tempo, con l’Italia degli anni Novanta, dell’avvento della destra; e Lo Spasimo di Palermo (’98) che mette in luce le collusioni tra il potere politico e la mafia con le stragi degli anni Novanta.

17Anche la trilogia di Zanzotto è legata alla Storia, ma comprende un arco temporale che parte dalla grande tragedia popolare della Prima Guerra Mondiale con la prima ‘anta’, Il Galateo in Bosco (’78), nella prospettiva di rivitalizzarne la memoria nel presente. Il Bosco è quello del Montello, a sud di Pieve di Soligo, visto dal poeta come un’enorme pattumiera che r-accoglie i sedimenti organici e inorganici del processo naturale, i resti dei picnic dei villeggianti assieme alle ossa dei soldati della Grande Guerra, il cumulo delle tracce lasciate dall’uomo nei secoli. Questo Bosco rimasto quasi intatto, seppur sfruttato, nei secoli venne distrutto dopo l’Unificazione, nelle varie battaglie che portarono, nel ’18, alla vittoria italiana contro l’Austria-Ungheria. Le tracce di questa tragedia sono rimaste nella terra, tanto che la topografia della zona segna la linea degli Ossari nel Montello (Tessari 2009). Parecchi titoli dei componimenti – come indica Zanzotto in una Nota – sono tratti da parole o frasi del Bollettino della Vittoria e questo è un procedere anche di Consolo, che si spinge forse ancora più in là riportando in alcuni casi, nei suoi romanzi, stralci di documenti inediti consultati in archivio, con quella sua preoccupazione di verità e soprattutto di dar voce a chi non ne ha avutaGalateo è un codice di comportamento, espressione delle regole che presiedono al vivere civile, ma che storicamente si sono incarnate nella retorica del potere e nella volontà di dominio sull’uomo e sulla natura; è il Galateo overo de’ costumi che Giovanni della Casa scrisse probabilmente negli anni in cui si ritirò nell’abbazia di Sant’Eustachio, presso Nervesa, nel trevigiano, tra il 1551 e il 1555 (e pubblicato postumo nel 1558). Ambiguo e lacerato è lo statuto della poesia: da una parte si rivolge al bosco come unica fonte di sostentamento e speranza di vita autentica, dall’altra si riconosce nelle istanze razionalizzanti del Galateo, poiché memoria stratificata nel codice letterario. Al centro della raccolta vi è l’Ipersonetto (16 sonetti), che sta ad indicare l’elezione di un codice altamente letterario, ma ‘stravolto’, poiché vi è la tendenza del poeta ad incorporare grafismiideogrammisimboli matematicidisegni naïf, a volte con valore di notazioni musicali, influendo quindi sull’intonazione degli enunciati; a volte con funzione di semplice “commento” al testo; a volte con funzione di “disturbo” o monito, poiché manifestazioni del “rumore” della storia e del mondo contemporaneo.

18In Fosfeni (dell’83), il paesaggio è quello a nord di Pieve di Soligo e il carico di responsabilità sulla lingua poetica aumenta progressivamente, mentre in Idioma (dell’86) – la terza ‘anta’ della Trilogia – il centro geografico è la Pieve del poeta, un paese che è come un giardino devastato qua e là, una mappa, un palinsesto. La necessità di una presa di coscienza della distanza presente da ciò che ci costituisce in quanto passato è certamente uno dei principi guida della trilogia. Idioma contiene i Mestieròi, una sorta di ‘museo d’ombre’ in dialetto solighese, e una vecchia canzoncina satirica locale, I putèi del Mulineto, e vi è l’espressione queimada brasilèira, con cui Zanzotto denuncia il fatto di bruciare le foreste per coltivare il terreno (ciò’ è legato all’emigrazione veneta in Brasile alla fine del XIX secolo). Ma anche la foresta del Montello era stata abbattuta nell’82 per poter coltivare il terreno. In questo processo di nominazione (da Idioma, appunto) entra sempre la Storia e un esempio ne è la poesia intitolata Il nome di Maria Fresu, dedicata a una ragazza letteralmente polverizzata dalla bomba della stazione di Bologna del 2 agosto 1980, tanto che si dubitò a lungo se fosse realmente tra le vittime: ridotta unicamente al suo nome:

E il nome di Maria Fresu
continua a scoppiare
all’ora dei pranzi
in ogni casseruola
in ogni pentola
in ogni boccone
in ogni
rutto – scoppiato e disseminato –
in milioni di
dimenticanze, di comi, bburp. (Zanzotto 2011: 700)

La necessità di registrare gli accadimenti passati e più recenti ritorna costantemente nell’opera di Zanzotto e Consolo, ma nell’ultima ‘anta’ della trilogia dello scrittore siciliano è presente il rischio dell’afasia, rappresentata dal protagonista Gioacchino Martinez, dietro cui si cela lo stesso Consolo, uno scrittore che non scrive e non vuole più scrivere, nemmeno le dediche sui propri libri. Questo silenzio è causato dall’esigenza di dire una verità e dalla constatazione dell’impossibilità di farlo. L’afasia qui  si accentua, testimone anche della coerenza e del coraggio del percorso letterario di Consolo: Decise di scuotersi, di fare, dar mano al proposito, da tempo accantonato, d’indagare sulla prigionia in Algeri di Cervantes e a quella, insieme, d’un poeta di qua dialettale, Antonio Veneziano. Sarebbe riuscito forse a scriverne, scrivere d’una realtà storica, della pena vera di due poeti, fuori da ogni invenzione, finzione letteraria. Aborriva il romanzo, questo genere scaduto, corrotto, impraticabile. Se mai ne aveva scritti, erano i suoi in una diversa lingua, dissonante, in una furia verbale ch’era finita in urlo, s’era dissolta nel silenzio. Si doleva di non avere il dono della poesia, la sua libertà, la sua purezza, la sua distanza dall’implacabile logica del mondo. Invidiava i poeti, maggiormente il veneto rinchiuso nella solitudine d’una pieve saccheggiata – tutt’ossa del Montello questo mondo – «Le tue ecloghe, amico, il tuo paesaggio avvelenato, il metallo del cielo che vi grava, la puella pallidula vagante, la tua lingua prima balbettante e la seconda ancor più ardua, scoscesa…’ questo cominciava a dirgli, pensandolo da quella sua sponda d’un antico Mediterraneo devastato13. (Consolo 2015: 953-954)

Il «veneto» è chiaramente Zanzotto che, «rinchiuso nella sua solitudine», registra i mutamenti di Pieve di Soligo e la dissacrazione del paesaggio che lo circonda dovuta alla cementificazione e al disboscamento; «le tue ecloghe» fa riferimento alla raccolta del ’62, IX Ecloghe, e la «puella pallidula vagante» è citazione appunto da IX Ecloghe, in particolare dal componimento:

13 settembre 1959 (Variante)
Luna puella pallidula,
Luna flora eremitica,
Luna unica selenita,
distonia vita traviata,
atonia vita evitata,
mataia, matta morula,
vampirisma, paralisi,
[…] (Zanzotto 2011: 171)

19Ritorna il tema della luna – che ha tanto affascinato Consolo tanto da comporre Lunaria (1985) – legato ad una serie di nominazioni provenienti da diversi campi linguistici: selenita, che in astronomia è tutto ciò che è in rapporto con la luna; distonia, che è l’alterazione del tono muscolare; l’atonia, che in linguistica è la mancanza di accento e in medicina la perdita del tono muscolare; la mataia, che deriva dal greco e significa folle, stolta; morula, che in biologia è la fase con cui ha inizio il processo di sviluppo di un embrione e infine vampirisma, che deriva da vampiro, spettro che esce dalle tombe la notte. «La tua lingua prima balbettante» è invece il dialetto di Zanzotto, mentre «la seconda ancor più ardua, scoscesa» è l’italiano. In questo passaggio, che possiamo considerare un omaggio di Consolo al poeta di Pieve di Soligo, l’io narrante aborre il romanzo e lamenta di non avere il dono della poesia, che per lo scrittore siciliano rappresenta

un’esigenza primaria dell’uomo. Se non ci fosse la poesia, se si estinguesse il canto, l’umanità rischierebbe parecchio, perché la poesia ha la capacità di risorgere, rifiorire inaspettata, riapparire anche nei luoghi più imprevedibili. In Italia rimane certamente la forma letteraria più irriducibile (perché meno mercificabile), continua a possedere un genuino nucleo di forza espressiva e verità. (Calcaterra 2016: 66)

Da questa concezione alta della poesia, deriva anche la prosa ritmica di Consolo e l’omaggio esplicito a Zanzotto va de soi, forse perché, come suggerisce Massimo Onofri, egli è:

abituato a lavorare sull’ideologia per alchimia sintattica, fermento lessicale, combustioni prosodiche […] dentro una «metrica della memoria» proprio come Consolo, senza compromessi. Entrambi hanno fatto della forma una questione di sostanza (Onofri 2004: 193-199).

  • 14 Cfr. ds in AC, Faldone Collaborazioni giornalistiche varie. Il documentario viene trasmesso da RA (…)

20Ricordiamo inoltre che nella seconda metà degli anni Settanta, Consolo realizzerà per la RAI il documentario dal titolo Una giornata di Iseo Tesser. Dentro e fuori una mostra sulla cultura contadina veneta, nato dall’esposizione Settecento anni di costume nel Veneto per la regia di Raoul Bozzi. La sceneggiatura è di Consolo, mentre l’intervistatore è Andrea Zanzotto, che parla con Iseo Tesser, un mezzadro sulle terre dei principi di Collalto (il ramo italiano degli Hohenzollern), ultimo di una famiglia che esercita quel mestiere da secoli14. Questo lavoro è testimonianza dell’attenzione dei due scrittori per i mestieri legati alla terra e la storia, nei secoli, di determinati territori, in particolare quelli delle loro regioni, che rappresentano sempre il punto di partenza.

21E veniamo ora alla recensione di Zanzotto alle Pietre di Pantalica, (Zanzotto 2001: 308-310):

Questo libro è costituito come da un terriccio fresco di apporti estremamente variati […]. L’autore sta chino, tra schifo ed entusiasmo, tra gioie segrete o paralizzanti perplessità, a scrivere un suo brogliaccio del tutto particolare [ed] è sempre un rivolgersi ai molti […] è quasi una preghiera […]. Il libro risulta quasi riportato al suo carattere di strato vegetale, […]. […] all’orizzonte, [vi sono] quelle entità che sono i toponimi, liberi suoni che finiscono per dire di più proprio a chi non può riconoscervi i luoghi. […] trasudano succhi e sapori le parole che denotano piante, strumenti, oggetti, scorrenti tra dialetto, italiano e manuale scientifico, spesso e in diversi modi obsolete, e con un tale aroma-afrore (odore penetrante e acre) di memoria, o perfino di necessario vuoto-di-presenza, da non far muovere la mano di chi legge verso vocabolari e simili.

Ma il momento più alto del libro è […][il] fascinoso imperio linguistico di Amalia: che trascina (l’amico) […] iniziandolo alla vita vera e forse anche alla vita vera della scrittura che egli svilupperà da adulto. (Zanzotto 2001: 308-310)15

Zanzotto, così attento alla lingua, alle parole, in particolare a tutti i nomi di piante, di fiori, di alberi, al paesaggio in generale e a quello del bosco in particolare, e così ‘funambolo’ nell’invenzione linguistica (pensiamo alla fantasia linguistica de Il Galateo in bosco del ’78), non poteva non apprezzare, sopra tutti, il magnifico racconto consoliano Il linguaggio del bosco, tanto che alla fine della sua recensione scriverà:

Consolo chiude improvvisamente, o meglio lascia il discorso su una storia marinaresca (vera) se mai ancora più cupa, […], [m]a non può disperare l’autore di quest’opera tanto amara quanto abbarbicata a quella minima letizia che viene dal sentire in cuore il pullulare di una lingua che fa di per sé sopravvivere. (Zanzotto 2001: 308-310)16

Ci sembra importante sottolineare che per la scrittura di Consolo si è parlato di “palinsesto” (‘O Connell 2010: 42-66), un termine che si riferisce al codice di pergamena su cui, raschiata la prima scrittura, si può scrivere un nuovo testo e dove l’originale rimane in trasparenza: così l’ipertesto si innesta nell’ipotesto. Zanzotto, nel 2001, pubblica la raccolta Sovrimpressioni e il primo significato del titolo è il riemergere di parole, di storie e di figure antiche di un tempo ormai lontano, ma confuso-fuso con quello reale. Il titolo deve quindi essere letto in relazione al ritorno di ricordi e di “tracce scritturali”: il poeta registra il degrado del paesaggio della sua amata terra, esprime la propria amarezza e lo fa rivivere, in dialetto, attraverso il ricordo di figure ‘mitiche’ del suo passato, già incontrate nella sua opera (come la Maestra Morchet o l’agricoltore Nino). Il modo di procedere è personalissimo, ma delle convergenze sono riscontrabili nell’idea di traccia, di recupero di modelli letterari, fatti storici, immagini di persone che hanno segnato in qualche modo il loro percorso.

22Questo studio si propone quindi come un primo contributo all’analisi comparativa di due autori che sono accomunati da un forte interesse per la sperimentazione linguistica e da una poetica comune, pur nell’estrema diversità dei risultati e dei generi praticati. Lo sforzo di recuperare dall’oblio pezzi di Storia, Consolo e Zanzotto l’hanno investito tutto nella lingua, e anche nei momenti più terribili, più tragici, quando la tentazione di abbandonare l’impresa era forte, da un degré zéro della pagina bianca hanno sempre continuato, nonostante tutto, l’entreprise, forti di un valore prima di tutto etico, che estetico, della letteratura e della lingua.Haut de page

Bibliographie

Des DOI sont automatiquement ajoutés aux références par Bilbo, l’outil d’annotation bibliographique d’OpenEdition.
Les utilisateurs des institutions qui sont abonnées à un des programmes freemium d’OpenEdition peuvent télécharger les références bibliographiques pour lequelles Bilbo a trouvé un DOI.

AA.VV., 2010, Scrittura e memoria in Vincenzo ConsoloMicroprovincia, 48, gennaio-dicembre.

Adamo G. (a cura di), 2006, Nuovi saggi sulla narrativa di Vincenzo Consolo, prefazione di Giulio Ferroni, Lecce, Manni.

Alvino G., 2012, Lo scrittore verticale. Pizzuto, Consolo, Bufalino, prefazione di Pietro Trifone, Casoria (NA), Loffredo Editore University Press, coll. Studi di Italianistica, n. 6.

Bassi S., Un «giardiniere e botanico delle lingue»: Andrea Zanzotto traduttore e autotraduttore, tesi di dottorato, Università Ca’ Foscari di venezia, XXIII ciclo (a.a. 2009/2010), http://dspace.unive.it/bitstream/handle/10579/1068/Tesi%20Dottorato%20Bassi.pdf?sequence=1.

Benjamin W., 2011 [19361], Il narratore. Considerazioni sull’opera di Nicola Leskov, note e commento di Alessandro Baricco, trad. it. di Renato Solmi, Torino, Einaudi, coll. Super ET.
Bongiorno G., Toppan L. (a cura di), 2018, Nel «melograno di lingue». Plurilinguismo e traduzione, Firenze, FUP, coll. Moderna e Comparata.
Breda M., 2012, «Haiku, la cura di Zanzotto», Corriere della Sera/La lettura, 30  settembre, p. 3.
Consolo V., 1993, Fuga dall’Etna. La Sicilia e Milano, la memoria e la storia, Roma, Donzelli.
Consolo V., 2014, La mia isola è Las Vegas, a cura di Nicolò Messina, Milano, Mondadori.
Consolo V., 2015, L’opera completa, a cura e con un saggio introduttivo di Gianni Turchetta e uno scritto di Cesare Segre, Milano, Mondadori, «I Meridiani». Consolo V., 2017, Cosa loro. Mafie tra cronaca e riflessione (1997-2010), a cura di Nicolò Messina, Milano, Bompiani.
Dal Bianco S., 2018, Le lingue e l’inglese degli haiku, in: Bongiorno G., Toppan L. (a cura di), 2018, Nel «melograno di lingue». Plurilinguismo e traduzione, Firenze, FUP, coll. Moderna e Comparata, p. 41-47.
Dal Bianco S., 2011, «Il percorso della poesia di Andrea Zanzotto», in: Zanzotto A., 2011, Tutte le poesie, Milano, Mondadori, coll. Oscar, p. VII-XCII.
Galvagno R. (a cura di), 2015, «Diverso è lo scrivere». Scrittura poetica dell’impegno in Vincenzo Consolo, introduzione di Antonio Di Grado, Avellino, Edizioni Sinestesie.
Minarda M., 2014, La lente bifocale. Itinerari stilistici e conoscitivi nell’opera di Vincenzo Consolo, Messina, Pungitopo. Montale E., 1968, «La poesia di Zanzotto», Il Corriere della Sera, 1/06/1968; poi in: Id., Sulla poesia, a cura di Giorgio Zampa, Milano, Mondadori. Nimis J., 2018, Glossalalie, xenoglossie nella «pseudo-trilogia», in Bongiorno G., Toppan L. 2018, p. 23-39. O’Connell D., 2010, «Il palinsesto della memoria», in: AA.VV., Scrittura e memoria in Vincenzo ConsoloMicroprovincia, 48, gennaio-dicembre, p. 42-66. Onofri M., 2004, «Nel magma Italia. Considerazioni su Consolo scrittore politico e sperimentale», in: Id., Il sospetto della realtà. Saggi e paesaggi novecenteschi, Avagliano, Cava de’ Tirreni, p. 193-99. Pasolini P. P., 1964, «Nuove questioni linguistiche», Rinascita, 16 dicembre. Pasolini P. P., 2000 [1972], Empirismo eretico, Milano, Garzanti, p. 5-24. Segre C., 2015, «Un profilo di Vincenzo Consolo», in: Consolo V., L’opera completa, a cura e con un saggio introduttivo di Gianni Turchetta e uno scritto di Cesare Segre, Milano, Mondadori, «I Meridiani», p. IX-XXII. Tessari R., 2009, Ritorno sul Montello con Andrea Zanzotto, in: Il Montello della Grande Guerra, vol. 3, Udine, Gaspari Editore.
Turchetta G., 2015, «Da un luogo bellissimo e tremendo», in: Consolo V., L’opera completa, a cura e con un saggio introduttivo di Gianni Turchetta e uno scritto di Cesare Segre, Milano, Mondadori, «I Meridiani», p. XXIII‑LXXIV.
Turchetta G., 2015, «Cronologia», in: Consolo V., L’opera completa, a cura e con un saggio introduttivo di Gianni Turchetta e uno scritto di Cesare Segre, Milano, Mondadori, «I Meridiani», p. LXXV-CLIII. Zanzotto A., 2013, Luoghi e paesaggi, a cura di Matteo Giancotti, Milano, Bompiani.
Zanzotto A., 2012, Haiku for a season / Haiku per una stagione, edited by Anna Secco e Patrick Barron, Chicago, University of Chicago.
DOI : 10.7208/chicago/9780226922225.001.0001 Zanzotto A., 2011, Tutte le poesie, Milano, Mondadori, coll. Oscar.
Zanzotto A., 2009, In questo progresso scorsoio. Conversazioni con Marzio Breda, Milano, Garzanti.
Zanzotto A., 2001, Scritti sulla letteratura, a cura di Gianmario Villalta, Milano, Mondadori, coll. Oscar saggi, vol. 2.
Zanzotto A., 1999, Le poesie e le prose scelte, a cura di Stefano Dal Bianco e Gianmario Villalta, con due saggi di Stefano Agosti e Fernando Bandini, Milano, Mondadori, «I Meridiani».
Zanzotto A., 1990, Dai monti fatati al sangue di Palermo, Consolo sospeso tra due Sicilie, in: Zappulla Muscarà S., Narratori siciliani del secondo dopoguerra, Catania, Maimone, p. 179-181.
Zappulla Muscarà S., Narratori siciliani del secondo dopoguerra, Catania, Maimone.Haut de page

Note

2 Cfr. Zanzotto 1999: 1104: «Certo anche un fenomeno come quello da loro rappresentato ha pienezza di diritti, ma non meno tra parentesi che gli altri fenomeni. […] si rende impossibile salvare, attraverso tanto legittimo disamore, qualche cosa che alluda, almeno, all’amore, ne isoli l’immagine per assurdo».
3 Si veda Consolo 2015: XCIX: «C’era il cognatino di un mio fratello, che era qui [a Milano], all’Università. Intervenne mio fratello: ‘Lo mandiamo a Milano all’Università Cattolica’. Io felice. Vincenzo si iscrive quindi a Giurisprudenza alla Cattolica di Milano: Vi sono approdato non per convinzioni religiose ma casualmente, perché avevo il desiderio di lasciare l’isola e conoscere il famoso continente. Il continente per noi siciliani era una sorta di mito».
4 Intervista a Vincenzo Consolo: R.A.I., serie Scrittori per un anno, http://www.letteratura.rai.it/articoli-programma/la-formazione-di-vincenzo-consolo/914/default.aspx.
5 Interessanti sono gli scritti di Consolo sulla mafia, che vanno dai primi anni Settanta sino al 2010, ovvero poco prima di morire. Ora riuniti in Consolo 2017.
6 Cfr. lo scritto Memorie, in Consolo 2014. I corsivi sono nostri.

7 Zanzotto 1999: CXIII-CXIV: «[…] terminato l’anno scolastico [il poeta] ’45-’46 decide di emigrare. Da amici trevigiani apprende che in Svizzera si può trovare un impiego: gli segnalano in particolare un posto di insegnante presso il collegio della cittadina turistica di Villars sur Ollon, nel Vaud, sulle montagne sopra Losanna, dove prende servizio nel mese di settembre. L’ambiente si dimostra alquanto opprimente, sia per una singolare figura di direttrice-padrona […] sia perché viene impiegato per supplenze e lezioni innumerevoli in tutte le materie, compresa la matematica. Rimane in Svizzera quasi un intero anno scolastico, poi è costretto a rientrare per essere operato di appendicite e per il successivo mese di convalescenza. Al ritorno in Svizzera decide di abbandonare il collegio tra i monti e si stabilisce a Losanna, dove l’atmosfera è ben più vivace. […] è disposto a fare il barista e il cameriere […] viene in contatto con i seguaci di Swedenborg. Rientrerà in Italia alla fine del’47 all’aprirsi di nuove prospettive per l’insegnamento». Di questo periodo svizzero inizierà a scrivere, in francese, nel Cahier Vaudois, rimasto però incompiuto e a tutt’oggi inedito. 9 Intervista a Vincenzo Consolo: R.A.I., serie Scrittori per un anno, http://www.letteratura.rai.it/articoli-programma/la-formazione-di-vincenzo-consolo/914/default.aspx.
10 Il sabir era chiamata anche petit mauresqueferenghi‘ajnabi o aljamia. Il nome sabir è forse una storpiatura del catalano saber; lingua franca, invece, deriva dall’arabo lisān-al-faranğī. Il secondo termine è in seguito passato ad indicare qualsiasi idioma che metta in contatto parlanti di estrazione diversa. Questa lingua ausiliaria serviva a mettere in contatto i commercianti europei con gli arabi e i turchi, ed era parlata anche dagli schiavi di Malta, dai corsari del Maghreb e dai fuggitivi europei che trovavano riparo ad Algeri. La morfologia era molto semplice e l’ordine delle parole molto libero. Per supplire alla mancanza di alcune classi di parole, vi era un largo uso di preposizioni e di aggettivi possessivi e aveva un numero limitato di tempi verbali (il futuro, per esempio, si creava usando il modale bisognio, il passato con il participio passato). Il primo documento in lingua franca risale al 1296 (Compasso da Navegare). Nel 1830 viene pubblicato a Marsiglia il Dictionnaire de la langue franque ou petit mauresque, suivi de quelques dialogues familiers et d’un vocabulaire de mots arabes le plus usuels; à l’usage des Français en Afrique, manuale scritto in lingua francese in occasione della spedizione francese in Algeria per la conquista di Algeri (è l’inizio della colonizzazione francese che si sarebbe protratta fino al 1962). Veniva così alla luce un idioma alquanto misterioso, usato dai secoli medievali nel Mediterraneo come mezzo di comunicazione tra cristiani di lingua romanza da un lato, arabi e poi turchi dall’altro. Doveva servire ai soldati francesi per imparare e conoscere la lingua sabir. Nell’Impresario delle Smirne, Goldoni inserisce un personaggio che si esprimeva in lingua franca. Cfr. Francesco Bruni, https://web.archive.org/web/20090328135757/http://www.italica.rai.it/principali/lingua/bruni/lezioni/f_lll5.htm.

11 Per le citazioni dalle opere di Consolo (dal «Meridiano»), ricorriamo alle seguenti abbreviazioni, seguite dal numero di pagina: Ferita dell’aprile (FA), Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio (S), Retablo (R), Le pietre di Pantalica (PP).
12 Breda 2012: 3. 13 I corsivi sono nostri. 14 Cfr. ds in AC, Faldone Collaborazioni giornalistiche varie. Il documentario viene trasmesso da RAI 1 la sera del 10 luglio 1977.

Référence papier

Laura Toppan, « Vincenzo Consolo e Andrea Zanzotto: un «archeologo della lingua» e un «botanico di grammatiche» », reCHERches, 21 | 2018, 183-198.

Référence électronique

Laura Toppan, « Vincenzo Consolo e Andrea Zanzotto: un «archeologo della lingua» e un «botanico di grammatiche» », reCHERches [En ligne], 21 | 2018, mis en ligne le 07 octobre 2021, consulté le 20 septembre 2022. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/cher/1269 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/cher.1269

Vincenzo Consolo con Luigi Meneghello “Laurea honoris causa” Palermo 20 giugno 2007

Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine

— Penso che vincere un premio come lo Strega possa essere, per uno scrittore serio, un’assicurazione contro i faccendoni, e il dilagare della carta. — La carta seppellisce i libri. Una volta gli scrittori lavoravano con la speranza nel futuro1 . Senza troppa esagerazione si può affermare che il tono essenziale della prosa consoliana rimane soprattutto riflessivo e didascalico. E se con questo ci si vuole riferire ad una remota disposizione che si ripresenti nelle opere degli scrittori siciliani, e cioè, una ricorrenza di quella peculiarità, nominata da Leonardo Sciascia una “specie di follia”. In questa zona discorsiva, acquista un rilievo massimo la figura di Luigi Pirandello atteggiata nell’argomentativo e sofistico ritmo di un ragionatore e di un maestro tutto volto a spiegare e insegnare. Ma questa razionalizzante sicilitudine non è da credere che s’aggiri in una forma di cattedratica istruzione o di astratta lezione2 . Al contrario, la meditazione svolta dell’autore, pur nei confini dello schema prestabilito si avvia di acute analisi e di fini notazioni psicologiche
1  F. Parazzoli: Il gioco del mondo. Dialoghi sulla vita, i sogni, le memorie […]. Cinisello Balsamo, Edizioni San Paolo, 1998, p. 23. 2  Cfr. M. Tropea: Nomi, „ethos”, follia negli scrittori siciliani tra Ottocento e Novecento. Caltanissetta, Edizioni Lussografica, 2000, p. 5.
essenza della sicilitudine che superano i consueti limiti del comune repertorio morale. Pirandello, nel modo più autonomo, è riuscito a collegare i motivi siciliani come: mania, follia e superstizioni e grandi temi dello smarrimento dell’animo dell’uomo. Si potrebbe dire, a titolo non solo di paradosso, che lo scrittore avverta la presenza della conoscenza della vita nella totalità dei suoi aspetti come il frutto di un’esperienza non gradita e tendenzialmente rifiutata. Invece la liberazione dei sentimenti e dell’invenzione dal peso del reale presuppone un’intensa partecipazione ad esso, non un rifiuto, non un esilio, ma un’accettazione contrastata e difficile. Ad una maggiore immediatezza d’espressione si torna con l’esperienza di Vitalino Brancati che distingue la cultura della Sicilia in due grandi suddivisioni: “[…] quella occidentale degli arabi, dei cavilli, delle sottigliezze, della malinconia, di Pirandello e di Giovanni Gentile e dei mosaici; e quella orientale dei Fenici, dei Greci, della poesia, della musica, del commercio, dell’inganno, di Stesicoro, Verga, Bellini, San Giuliano”3 . Con le opere di Brancati si rimane sempre nella stessa dimensione della poesia invasa dalla follia che forma la peculiarità dell’anima e della cultura siciliana. Secondo Mario Tropea l’esistenza di una “letteratura siciliana” costituisce una figurazione di una insularità affermata non solamente dal punto di vista storico e antropologico. Nella sua sostanza si conferma una tonalità narrativa della psicologia umana4 . Allo sguardo satirico di Brancati, l’universo siciliano non appare come lo spazio di cui celebrare il fasto, né tanto meno la sede in cui si elaborano progetti politici; esso diviene piuttosto il bersaglio privilegiato di un processo di smascheramento, teso a mettere a nudo l’incapacità dei rappresentanti del potere, l’interesse dei cittadini e il loro stato di umiliante soggezione. In questo senso appare emblematico il punto di vista di Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, pieno d’ironia, pensata come sintesi di distacco aristocratico. Forse ha capito che allo scrittore non si chiede più l’eroismo di una classe feudale, ma la naturale mutevolezza di caratteri osservati nella
3  Ibidem, p. 6. 4  Cfr. ibidem.
realtà quotidiana. L’ottica dall’interno con cui il mondo della Sicilia è narrato compare nella presenza di nozioni dell’ironia e della storia. L’isola ha una sua storia che la genera e rigenera. Nella scelta di una narrazione mimetica l’insularità diventa una proprietà imprescindibile. Consolo non inventerebbe l’isola se non vi fosse venuto al mondo, se nella vita, nella scrittura non fosse venuto incontro ad esso e se non l’avesse raccontato tramite le vicissitudini dei compaesani. Pubblicando i suoi scritti, Consolo ha salvato dall’oblio inerente all’oralità le storie dolorose e fragili. Sembra che, simbolicamente, lo scrittore abbia saldato un debito nei confronti degli interlocutori del paese natio. Non si tratta, in questa analisi, di propugnare uno scavalcamento delle gerarchie né di rinnegare gli interessi degli scrittori; invano si cercherebbe in queste opere un progetto di riforma della società in base a nuovi valori. Mondo insulare e mondo della penisola sembrano impermeabili. Eclettico Capuana non tanto lontano dalla realtà del naturalismo di Verga rappresenta la follia proprio tramite uno studio “clinico”. Nella poetica che sembra quella di un generico realismo, Consolo varca la soglia della finzione e recupera le forme testuali della verità quasi documentaria: struttura e tono del reportage, appendici forniti dalla storia, narrazione in terza persona. Un’idea di narrazione polimorfica potrebbe risultare una necessità di inquadrarsi all’interno di una prospettiva di moderno umanesimo delle contraddizioni. Ferruccio Parazzoli ha ammesso di sentirsi come Ismaele — il protagonista di Moby Dick. Invece, però di andarsene per mare, lo studioso si accontenta di svolgere la ricerca tra gli amici5 . In Mondadori, la sua casa editrice, Consolo viene considerato uno dei più ascoltati scrittori italiani. “Quando dice fa opinione” — ricorda Parazzoli6 . Se lo scrittore si riferisce alla quotidianità politica, lo fa direttamente come nella constatazione rapportata alla situazione del settembre del 1994: “Io credo che chi ci governa sia affetto da una grave malattia mentale. […] Tutti i suoi gesti, tutte le sue azioni, tutti
5  Cfr. F. Parazzoli: Il gioco del mondo…, p. 54. 6  Ibidem.
gli ordini, tutto quanto lui dispone è all’insegna dell’irrazionalità e della follia”7 .

Prendendo le mosse dal mito sul Cavallo inventato da Ulisse, Consolo cerca di individuare un’ipotesi fondamentale dell’illusione vissuta dall’Italia dopo la seconda guerra mondiale; l’illusione dell’Itaca e cioè dell’armonia, della storia e degli affetti. Dopo le tragedie subite c’era bisogno di razionalità e di ordine che potevano essere visti come tappe di un possibile recupero della ragione. Va poi sottolineato, sul piano delle corrispondenze fra la ragione e la follia che questa oscillazione è diventata una costante della storia dell’Italia. Consolo dichiara decisamente il desiderio di testimoniare il senso storico del suo tempo. In questo caso la testimonianza riguardante la situazione del paese è un espediente narrativo esemplare della tecnica della trasformazione che si gioca su capovolgimenti. La generazione di Consolo ha conosciuto un mondo che era la civiltà contadina è che poi ha cominciato a sostituire la vita con le cose, con la merce. In conseguenza è accaduto lo spostamento della centralità dell’essere e la sua sostituzione con l’avere. La rapidità di questo processo ha lesionato anche le altre sfere dell’attività umana. Secondo Consolo il movimento delle masse contadine ha portato alla distruzione della cultura popolare. Anche un discorso svolto dallo scrittore sui colpevoli di questo stato di cose indica chiaramente i politici un primo luogo e poi gli intellettuali. Questa idea di responsabilità sopravvive nella coscienza letteraria consoliana, specialmente quanto il narratore sottolinea la propria provenienza siciliana. In questo paesaggio dell’Italia corrotta e arrettrata, Milano è cominciata ad essere considerata come la città dell’utopia, senza sopraffazione e violenza. Non è quindi per un caso nemmeno da questo punto di vista, in fondo, che Vincenzo Consolo come Verga e Vittorini, approdì a Milano. Con il passare di tempo nasce la delusione. La cosa da notare subito è la convinzione di Consolo della responsabilità maggiore della Milano moderna, siccome più dotata nel campo di lavoro e di cultura, della digradazione e dell’avvilimento.
7  Ibidem, p. 25.
Si capisce ancora meglio, così, perché sia proprio quest’inclinazione a renderci più coscienziosi e più sensibili ai problemi della realtà circostante. Esaminando il percorso dello sviluppo del romanzo politico, Consolo pronuncia apertamente la sfortuna di Sciascia e di Pasolini. Il primo è stato dimenticato, il secondo invece, è stato imbalsamato in una nicchia di santità laica. Nelle sue narrazioni ci si rivolge come un’ultima volta a uno spazio e a un tempo che stanno per svanire definitivamente. Attingendo ai maestri come Verga, Pirandello, Vittorini, Consolo vuole mettere in evidenza una realtà che si può raccontare. Non consumata dall’informazione, dalla televisione o dai giornali ma capace di far sopportare e di capire la realtà. Una delle caratteristiche di questo modo robusto di narrare è quel ricorso frequente alla parola “armonia” che è diventata una parola chiave nel suo vocabolario di scrittore. Si scopre così che, correntemente alla sua essenza patetica, questa parola, come specchio e rappresentazione dello sguardo che lo affronta, può diventare un espediente che renderà più facile il conciliarsi con la vita e con la realtà. È altrettanto importante mettere in evidenza un’altra costante della produzione letteraria consoliana e cioè, la volontà di decifrare un passato remoto. L’atteggiamento di protesta contro la dissacrazione del nostro tempo. Gli elementi della materia che diventano veri e propri protagonisti della memoria di Consolo sono tra l’altro: le pietre, le piante e il mare. La loro capacità di ipostatizzare lo sguardo che li contempla e di oggettivarlo in una forma visibile, non si trasforma mai in pura contemplazione ma cambia nell’esperienza interiore. La memoria del mondo ormai dimenticato e trascurato diventa anche il modo per salvarlo. Con questo espediente lo scrittore vuole opporsi al senso della precarietà del mondo moderno. Nella prefazione al saggio di Basilio Reale lo scrittore constata: Ho sempre pensato la letteratura siciliana (e non solo la letteratura, ma la pittura, la scultura, la musica: l’arte insomma) svolgersi su due crinali, su due filoni o temi distinti: quello della storia e quello dell’esistenza (o della natura, o del mito)8 .
8  V. Consolo: Prefazione. In: B. Reale: Sirene siciliane. L’anima esiliata in “Lighea” di Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa. Bergamo, Moretti & Vitali Editori, 2001, p. 15.
La memoria di quel mondo viene conservata anche nella dimensione di fuga dal paese. La fuga che è possibile forse solo in letteratura. La letteratura come possibilità di staccarsi dalla Sicilia, pur restando in Sicilia: l’esilio dall’interno. Molto legato ai valori come l’orgoglio, l’umiltà e il pudore, Consolo constata che la mancanza di pudore che ormai fa parte di ogni settore dell’attività umana, lo disorienta e offende. La paragona a una forma di violenza, come nei teatri anatomici quando si squadernavano i corpi. Parlando dell’importanza della memoria, lo scrittore rievoca la testimonianza di Pirandello, vissuta a circa due anni e legata ad un’eclisse solare che diventa un autentico archetipo della scrittura pirandelliana e un’ipostasi che è presente anche nella narrativa di Consolo9 . La prova di ricostruire questa memoria storica riguarda un mondo in cui la memoria sta per annullarsi. Ne rimangono solo delle apparenze e degli stereotipi. Per salvare questa realtà acquisisce soprattutto una forza dell’espressione linguistica, il richiamo alla lingua: unico segno realmente distintivo e significativo di appropriazione del mondo nelle possibilità di narrarlo, il che vuol dire per Consolo di ricrearlo narrativamente. Non a caso Giulio Ferroni riconosce allo scrittore il merito di essersi mosso alla ricerca di un linguaggio capace di unire in sé “la curiosità storica e razionale di Sciascia e il violento plurilinguismo di Gadda”10. Per Consolo la forza stilistica e inventiva diventa simbolo dell’aspirazione barocca a inglobare i diversi aspetti del reale in un complesso eterogeneo, ma organizzato. Le stesse ansie e inquietudini che, come si è visto, stanno a fondamento della ricerca dello scrittore siciliano, permeano altrettanto la prosa di diversi autori legati alla loro terra, alla loro regione, al loro quartiere. Il rapporto con il nichilismo del Novecento, la crisi di valori, la redifinizione dell’identità, i temi fondamentali non solo dell’opera di Consolo non solo hanno volto l’attenzione di molti su
9 Consolo, questa prosa, la nomina “la memoria di un’eclisse”, cfr. F. Parazzoli: Il gioco del mondo…, p. 29. 10 G. Ferroni: Storia della letteratura italiana. Milano, Einaudi, 1991, p. 129.
questi problemi ma sono anche stati oggetto di analisi di vari critici11. Joanna Ugniewska, nella parte conclusiva del saggio di Matteo Collura ci ricorda che l’autore, attingendo al modello vittoriniano del viaggio orientato verso i luoghi dell’isola d’infanzia e di origine, definisce la propria narrazione come il percorso verso luoghi dove la memoria è stata imprigionata12. Nel corso del Novecento la critica aveva riesaminato con accenti più serrati il ruolo degli autori siciliani. Alcuni di loro come Elio Vittorini e Leonardo Sciascia e un po’ più tardi Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa sono stati premiati con il Nobel per la letteratura, gli altri hanno goduto un notevole successo editoriale. Nel quadro di questo pensiero siciliano non sarà luogo d’azione a sancirne il suo carattere originale. È vero che le narrazioni consoliane sono ambientate nella Sicilia, ma accade che le opere degli autori rievocati presentino i contesti geografici più neutri e generici. Da questo punto di vista, dunque, la provenienza potrebbe risultare un mero dato anagrafico. Ma in effetti la personalità consoliana era lungi dal limitarsi a tale rapporto tra la terra di nascita e le scelte future, tra l’aspirazione e i contrasti della vita, rapporto in certo modo risolto nella posizione dello scrittore di estrema apertura verso il reale, quale era propria di una scrittura che avverte in sé il continuo bisogno di nuovi orizzonti e di nuove situazioni. Se si volesse configurare la letteratura d’arte come perenne conflitto di “rappresentazione” e di “intellettualità”, si dovrebbe tornare mentalmente allo Stilnovismo, ma la presenza del momento intellettualistico è percepibile anche nell’arte moderna. Nel suo saggio dedicato agli scrittori siciliani del Novecento, Massimo Naro constata che l’atteggiamento intellettuale degli scrittori isolani si innesta sulla loro provenienza, non solo nel senso anagrafico o geografico, ma molto più profondamente, con le implicazioni etiche come antichi modi
11 Cfr. G. Pellegrino: Lotta, memoria e responsabilità: Eraldo Affinati. In: Scrittori in corso. Osservazioni sul racconto contemporaneo. A cura di L.A. Giuliani, G. Lo Castro. Soveria Mannelli, Rubbettino, 2012, p. 155. 12 Cfr. M. Collura: Na Sycylii. Przeł. J. Ugniewska. Warszawa, Fundacja Zeszytów Literackich, 2013, p. 158.
di percepire il mondo a partire dalla terra di nascita13. L’esperienza siciliana diventa una specie di prospettiva nella quale gli autori contrappongono l’isola ad ogni terraferma. Più netti sono i contorni dell’isola, più il mondo fa da sfondo, diventa il miraggio. Così, quando lo sguardo degli scrittori entra “dentro” l’isola, la descrizione della concretezza fisica dello spazio non perde mai di vista gli elementi “strutturali” della Sicilia stessa. Una concretezza descrittiva che non trascura la peculiarità funzionale di questa scrittura, di esprimerne la gratitudine e la nostalgia. Questa caratteristica dell’ottica siciliana viene confermata fortemente nell’analisi del titolo dell’opera di Antonio Di Grado Finis Siciliae14 svolta da Anna Tylusińska-Kowalska nella parte introduttiva al volume dedicato alla produzione artistica di Leonardo Sciascia, Gesualdo Bufalino, Vincenzo Consolo, Luisa Adorno e Matteo Collura15. Nel commentare il titolo del libro citato del Di Grado e il contenuto del proprio volume, la studiosa sottolinea la funzione del diversificato paesaggio siciliano da cui scaturisce il mito della tradizione, del legame con la terra di nascita e della storia non sempre felice. Pirandello ha già definito le caratteristiche di questa specie di ottica, usando il termine “raziocinare” per questo modo di esaminare: volutamente più lento, più pacato, meno calcolante e più poetico, ma sempre capace di focalizzare l’attenzione sulle questioni problematiche e urgenti del tempo. Le cose hanno un volto diverso nel senso che qui sono appunto gli scrittori a porsi delle domande che nelle altre parti del mondo si pongono dei filosofi: sull’esistenza, sulla verità, sulla giustizia e sul potere. Gli echi dello stesso dibattito sorgono nei pensieri di Gesualdo Bufalino che si chiedeva se ciò che l’uomo sperimenta sia conclusivo o provvisorio, reale o illusorio? Nelle sue
13 Cfr. Sub specie typographica. Domande radicali negli scrittori siciliani del Novecento. A cura di M. Naro. Caltanissetta—Roma, Salvatore Sciascia Editore, 2003, p. 6. 14 A. Di Grado: Finis Siciliae. Scrittura nell’isola tra resistenza e resa. Acireale— Roma, Bonanno, 2005. 15 Cfr. Literacki pejzaż Sycylii. Leonardo Sciascia, Gesualdo Bufalino, Vincenzo Consolo, Luisa Adorno, Matteo Collura. Red. A. Tylusińska-Kowalska. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo DiG, 2011, p. 9.
opere l’isola diventa metafora della teatralizzazione della vita16. Vale ancora aggiungere che nella sua ricerca appare chiara la volontà di valutare questa “qualità interrogante” della letteratura siciliana. Questo capitolo, di carattere esclusivamente introduttivo, si limita a considerare alcuni nomi e testi esemplari di questa lunga e complessa storia letteraria. La problematicità della letteratura siciliana si comprende nell’antirazionalità della poesia di Bartolo Cattafi, nell’opposizione tra certezza e dubbio nei libri di Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, nella contrapposizione tra fede e follia nei testi di Lucio Piccolo e Carmelo Samonà nella rappresentazione della dignità umana nelle opere di Elio Vittorini, nella ricerca del senso della vita in Francesco Lanza o in Nino Savarese, nella felicità perduta in Ercole Patti, nel nichilismo esistenziale in Sebastiano Addamo, nel dramma dell’emigrazione nella poesia di Stefano Vilardo, nell’impegno intellettuale di Vincenzo Consolo, nella protesta contro le violenze quotidiane di Dacia Maraini, nell’angoscia esistenziale nella narrativa di Gianni Riotta, Giosuè Calaciura e Roberto Alajmo. Consolo si realizza nella sua coscienza dell’intellettuale, egli misura costantemente la propria sorte d’uomo di cultura. Allude in questo modo alla tradizione l’iniziatore della quale viene considerato Dante — il primo intellettuale in senso moderno. Il sapere ritrovato è tutto orientato in senso “morale” e la reintegrazione della cultura nel destino dell’uomo segno un punto fermo nella storia della civiltà letteraria17. La caratteristica che unisce ambedue i personaggi è la coscienza “militante”. Alla letteratura siciliana è stato quindi assegnato il privilegio di colmare un ritardo, a sua volta necessario per riflettere sul valore e sulla ragione dell’esistenza umana. Giulio Ferroni denuncia la tendenza ad apparizione degli scrittori impegnati su altri terreni. Lo scrittore si pone cioè di fronte a un mondo passato e la sua continuità nel mondo postmoderno con gli strumenti mentali e catalogatori con cui aveva sempre osservato la
16 Cfr. J. Ugniewska: O zaletach peryferyjności, czyli jak można być Sycylijczykiem. W: Literacki pejzaż Sycylii…, p. 37. 17 Cfr. S. Battaglia: Mitografia del personaggio. Milano, Rizzoli Editore, 1968, p. 516.
resistenza della Sicilia continuamente decrescente18. Di qui il richiamo ad un rapporto difficile ma molto efficace tra memoria storica e ricerca linguistica, alle quali Consolo riconosce di essere “a livello d’indagine”. Un “livello” situato evidentemente nell’aver stabilito un nuovo rapporto con la realtà in cui appaiono mutati i fattori stessi del passato. Alla narrativa ha assegnato il dovere di confrontare la violenza del passato e quella del presente e provare la presenza della stessa continuità di un modo di soffrire e di cercare la via di salvezza. L’interesse per questi scrittori, che, con precisa terminologia, sono stati definiti siciliani, non è un fatto recente, ma ancora in fase di sistemazione critica. Nell’ottica della ricezione che esprime l’orizzonte dell’opera letteraria, si scorge negli scrittori siciliani la coscienza di un dramma e di un dissidio psicologico e quindi la profonda serietà morale dell’ispirazione. L’indagine più recente, mentre respinge l’interpretazione che fa degli autori siciliani le figure periferiche, accetta alcune conclusioni critiche precedenti, ma le integra con una nuova serie di proposte e di riconoscimenti. Vincenzo Consolo vive nella tradizione segnata dagli studiosi quasi esclusivamente per il fatto che fu l’amico, l’ammiratore e l’ereditario letterario di Leonardo Sciascia. Ma accanto a questa immagine esiste un’altra figurazione civica di Consolo, quella del letterato enciclopedico, che fa sentire nelle sue opere, con l’ardore della scoperta e l’ansia di comunicarla, tutto l’amore della scienza, della storia e della cultura. E non è da dimenticare il contegno civile di Vincenzo Consolo. Anche se opera nell’ambiente milanese, in uno stadio di involuzione più profonda, non è lontano dall’atteggiamento di partecipazione. Anzi, risulta propenso a stabilire fra la letteratura e la vita quotidiana un legame, in cui si celebri la nuova teorizzata libertà e dignità del letterato. La letteratura che prende avvio dalla Sicilia è caratterizzata dalla straordinaria pluralità e varietà delle voci in cui si esprime 18 
Cfr. G. Ferroni, A. Cortellessa, I. Pantani, S. Tatti: Storia della letteratura italiana. La letteratura nell’epoca del postmoderno. Verso una civiltà planetaria 1968—2005. Vol. 17. Milano, Mondadori, 2005, p. 87.
31 il sentimento di una cultura letteraria assai più complessa e insieme obbediente a molte sollecitazioni. Una letteratura di transizione, segnata da parecchie fortissime personalità di orgogliosi cantori della propria terra e capostipiti della civiltà antica, e da una propensione ai tentativi e agli esperimenti, in cui si rispecchia la vita difficile, contradditoria, irta di delusioni e di utopie, di un mondo che si dibatte nella travagliosa ricerca di un nuovo ordine politico, morale ed intellettuale. Esperienza intima e reale è quella che Consolo invera nelle sue opere e che egli fa conoscere distinguendo, su un fondamento assiologico due cose: il valore metaforico di vicende individuali nelle quali ciascuno può ritrovare le proprie passioni e il valore universale dei fatti della storia siciliana con le loro proiezioni ed interpretazioni. Bisogna quindi accostarsi alle opere consoliane come a una cronaca, i cui personaggi rappresentano una specie di dramatis personae, capaci di facilitare il passaggio dalla confessione e dall’indagine psicologica e antropologica ai processi della conoscenza di una più profonda e più complessa realtà, quella che non vive costretta nei limiti di questo, cioè, isolano, spazio. Il significato che assumono gli eventi riportati da Consolo nelle narrazioni, per esempio la strage che conclude il suo ultimo romanzo, risulta assai vasto. Lo spasimo di Palermo sembra una sconfitta della ragione di fronte alla violenza, invece secondo il messaggio metaforico può assumere il valore della presa di coscienza della società civile rinata. Nei romanzi consoliani vi è presente un’immensa esperienza di vita, ed è presente come può esserla a chi non solo la contempla ma anche a chi si mescola fra la vita. I flashback che illuminano l’infanzia difficile dei protagonisti consoliani, la fuga dall’isola e il deludente soggiorno a Milano sono raccontati come il dramma umano che appartiene all’universale travaglio. Questa prosa ci offre, alle soglie della civiltà postmoderna, un’ampia documentazione di fatti e di figure, un quadro mobile e profondo delle società e delle storie diverse. Non sorprende affatto, quindi, che in polemica con l’esistenza e la funzione del confine gli scrittori siciliani non abbandonassero il carattere della loro terra, indicando come correlato della sua consi – 32 Capitolo I: Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine stenza non la limitatezza causata dal mare, ma la fermezza della vicinanza del continente. Nell’immaginario degli autori siciliani l’isola risulta dunque un paesaggio percepito prima staticamente (da lontano) e poi dinamicamente (dall’interno), in una dialettica giustapposta tra “dentro” e “fuori”, tra spazio guardato e spazio vissuto che corrisponde alla duplice essenza dell’isola stessa, che è per definizione un luogo d’accesso posto al confine con mare, uno spazio in cui si abita in uno spazio in cui si viaggia. Per i siciliani le relazioni di spostamento seguono questa fenomenologia lineare di inoltramento (varcare il confine, passare il mare), che si accorda a un’inclinazione all’esplorazione delle direzioni ben determinate come: l’America, l’Italia e l’Europa occidentale. Nell’intreccio di queste istanze antitetiche ancora più nitido sembra il capovolgimento della situazione siciliana, che affonda in complesse dinamiche sociali e antropologiche. La Sicilia, dall’essere terra di emigrazione, è diventata la terra di immigrazione. La sintesi più valida del ribaltamento avvenuto, la dobbiamo a Leonardo Sciascia che nel suo racconto intitolato Il lungo viaggio presenta la partenza dei clandestini da una spiaggia tra Gela e Licata in cui adesso approdano gli immigrati dal Nordafrica. Un’attenzione più dettagliata al rapporto fra la letteratura e la storia viene espressa molte volte nei libri degli scrittori siciliani contemporanei. All’efficacia della storia reinterpretata dalla scrittura non si può non accostare quella della produzione letteraria sempre più florida che spesso coincide con la prima. L’attenzione per la scrittura siciliana è un fenomeno rilevante e procede di pari passo con le vere esplorazioni delle presenze letterarie che si compiono sempre più sistematicamente. Accanto agli autori e ai temi di massima rappresentatività, vi si trovano quelli più recenti che completano l’artistico panorama siciliano. Tra gli argomenti narrati quelli più frequenti riguardano l’espatrio (in America, in Africa, in Germania) e l’attuale condizione della penisola siciliana. Non di rado gli scrittori siciliani tendono a rappresentarsi in questo luogo in cui si concretizza la loro invenzione. Del ritorno in Sicilia scrivono dunque: D’Arrigo, Brancati, Vittorini, Consolo. Secondo Ignazio Romeo: “Tornare significa infatti anche, metaforicamente, Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine 33 scavare in se stessi e nella propria storia, cercare l’estraneo in quello che si è familiare: guardare, insomma, in profondità e a distanza”19. Ma è vero anche che da questo spazio limitato fisicamente si aprono i grandi percorsi della cultura e della fantasia. Sono due elementi fondamentali che reggono l’asse assiologico della letteratura siciliana, il primo riguardante il dibattito relativo all’attuale e storica esistenza umana e il secondo relativo alla letteratura stessa e il suo ruolo nella nostra modernità. Non si tratta di due realtà distintive che finiscono con lo scontrarsi ma di due componenti che complementandosi occupano un posto considerevole nel panorama letterario non solo siciliano o italiano. La forza dell’autoriflessione letteraria degli scrittori siciliani finisce nella maggior parte dei casi come il metadiscorso. Le domande sul senso dell’arte, poste da Verga e Pirandello — i primi esploratori di tale problematica, hanno un carattere ben definito. Una specie di slittamento metonimico da una fase di lotta per la ricchezza ad uno stadio di lotta per la parola, il contrasto essere/apparire, la permanenza del binomio vita/teatro diventano motivi costanti di chi vuole autointerrogarsi. Non meraviglia dunque il fatto che tutto ciò che Pirandello nomina nei Quaderni di Serafino Gubbio operatore ”il tumulto della civiltà” trae l’ispirazione dalla figura leopardiana del poeta “inattuale” che ha provocato la discussione sulla relazione tra la scrittura e la lettura, l’autore e il pubblico20. Si radica ai nostri occhi l’opinione che la Sicilia sia soltanto il simbolo, l’espediente che consente di stabilire un contatto tra l’uomo e la sua identità. Vincenzo Consolo si dedica alla stesura delle sue opere ricorrendo alla pluralità linguistica che caratterizza la sua espressione letteraria. Accanto all’uso del lessico dell’italiano comune, il prosatore si serve del dialetto siciliano con delle varietà di re19 I. Romeo: Passare il mare. Dall’emigrazione all’immigrazione: cento anni di memorie e racconti nelle pagine degli scrittori siciliani. Palermo, Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei beni culturali ed ambientali e della pubblica istruzione, Dipartimento dei beni culturali, ambientali e dell’educazione permanente, 2007, p. 12. 20 Cfr. L. Fava Guzzetta: Dalle domande della scrittura alle domande sulla scrittura. La coscienza letteraria dei siciliani. Caltanissetta, Sciascia, 2003, p. 11. 34 Capitolo I: Vincenzo Consolo — essenza della sicilitudine gistri e di toni dal domestico familiare al lirico-volgare21. Giuseppe Bellia, analizzando il modo di scrivere consoliano, parla dell’autonomo sviluppo del filone gaddiano rafforzato dalla ricerca costante di linguaggi antichi, di tradizioni locali e di ritualità arcaiche. E nell’affermato gusto barocco dello scrittore riconosce il meccanismo di un reperimento o di un ritrovamento della parola e non della sua invenzione22. Rifiuta le parole e i pensieri comuni, cerca con accuratezza quelle che rinchiudono il più d’accessori, esimio soprattutto nella scelta degli epiteti e dei verbi. Mira ad esprimere molto in poco. Ha l’idolatria della parola, non solo come espressione dell’idea, ma staccata, presa in sé come suono, attento a separare le parole nobili dalle plebee, le poetiche dalle prosaiche, ed raccontare tutto con sincerità. Anche nell’uso delle parole poetiche Consolo segue l’ultimo Verga che invade lo strato sintattico introducendo le formule dubitative. Con questo procedimento lo scrittore ha dichiarato l’allontanamento dal centro ed ha espresso la mancanza di una univocità dei significati23. La prosa consoliana manifesta un’inquietudine uguale causata dall’assenza dell’interlocutore immediato inscrivendosi nell’attuale discorso sulla comunicazione letteraria. Lia Fava Guzzetta nomina Consolo “un intellettuale meridionale, consapevole di una ‘ferita’, di una esclusione e di uno sradicamento”24 che si applica allo studio profondo del passato troppo facilmente rifiutato dalla società odierna. La difficoltà sta nell’impossibilità dell’abbinare la parola di oggi alla rappresentazione della Sicilia di una volta. La narrazione che avviene per frammenti viene paragonata a volte alla dimensione del reportage giornalistico. Anche Giuseppe Traina nel suo saggio dedicato allo scrittore siciliano mette in rilievo l’importanza di questo genere destinato da Consolo alla testimonianza degli avvenimenti accaduti negli ultimi anni come, per esempio, i funerali dello studente Walter Rossi, militante della sinistra extraparlamentare ucciso
21 Cfr. G. Passarello: Un’isola non abbastanza isola. Palermo, Palumbo, 2007, p. 136. 22 Cfr. G. Bellia: L’obliquo percorso della memoria. La scrittura di Vincenzo Consolo tra storia, ritualità e sdegno. In: Sub specie typographica…
23 Cfr. L. Fava Guzzetta: Dalle domande della scrittura…, p. 15. 24 Ibidem, p. 19.

35 dai neofascisti25. Perciὸ, per evitare l’ambiguità del discorso, Consolo ricorre più volte ad un referente diverso dalla scrittura, appartenente invece al campo delle arti figurative, come i quadri di Antonello, di Caravaggio e di Raffaello, i dipinti di Clerici. Il romanzo Lo spasimo di Palermo vuole essere infatti la manifestazione della forza stilistica orientata verso la ricreazione di una speranza di giustizia e di razionalità nel modo in cui dominano oppressione e terrore anche se la sospensione della comunicazione tra un padre e un figlio espressa tramite il motivo di una lettera rimane una tra le scene più suggestive di questo romanzo che tratta dell’impossibilità della continuazione di scrivere. Consolo è cosciente delle conseguenze della postmodernità così come lo era George Steiner che nel Linguaggio e silenzio parla dell’esaurimento dell’era verbale e del dominio delle forme “postlinguistiche” e addirittura del silenzio parziale26.
25 Cfr. G. Traina: Vincenzo Consolo. Fiesole, Cadmo, 2001, p. 21. 26 Cfr. G. Steiner: Linguaggio e silenzio. Milano, Garzanti, 2001, p. 56.


Aneta ChmielRompere il silenzio I romanzi di Vincenzo Consolo

Ports as locus of the Mediterranean imaginary Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo

by
Maria Roberta Vella
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
Master of Arts in Literary Tradition and Popular Culture
August 2014
Faculty of Arts
University of Malta

I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions.
II
Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12
1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20
2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38
3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo
Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69
4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?.
III
Abstract

The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between
civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot.
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1
Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea
(Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104
2
region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
4
of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55
6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the
Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region.
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. 
They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature
shaping the way in which history and culture developed.
The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in
literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the
Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo
Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by
Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two
different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different
periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and
somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore
recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the
authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that
the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on
8
the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the
region, a rich imaginary is created.
The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security
and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a
country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller.
Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience.
9
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power.
The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief,
need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes
of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in
common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a
5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010)
10
spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The
ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence
of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the
Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this
sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the
Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other
hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage.
6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II
(Fontana press: 19 8 6)
11
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the
Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today,
in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014)
www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February,
2014)
13
‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning.
The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it
purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. 
Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and
although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15
1.4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies,
contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.
16
2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients.
17
The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow
constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996)
12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike.
13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007)
19
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372
20
figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009)
21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean.
Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same
contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the
MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger
macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.

‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie
nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure
-penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero
all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17
‘Drunken songs and curses rise up
in the suburban tavern. Here, too,
I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is
drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18
16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
\V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372
22
Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’
with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
23
have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant
geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical
complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986)
20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011)
24
natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love,
between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
25
infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor:
26
‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si
annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il
superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita
come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22
‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we
find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of
limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio”
and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
27
number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
28
Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern
or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the
stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean,
that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea
routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large
and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey
is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
29
deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25
‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of
a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’
This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from
Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010)
30
place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself.
27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
31
Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation
between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56
30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29
32
‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques
and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the
ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural
voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the
quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming
equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history.
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008)
34
and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and
identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25
35
clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una
fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono
i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture,
al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce
l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 
‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a
finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places
where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are
numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one
starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that
give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature.
34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi
(Garzanti elefanti: 2008)
35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53
36
The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s
envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination.
37
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)

38
the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself:
‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured
history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or
restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that
the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole.
37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08
39
The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the
fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards
the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014)
40
eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41
naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere
in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility
The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an
expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and
cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of
spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the
Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage
throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that
could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were
adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As
Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods
were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan
and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to
41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011)
43
divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting.
The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in
the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can
also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that
in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often
projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean.
42 Ibid pp.443
43 Ibid pp.443
44
Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean,
interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and
customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto
have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural
interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in
Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45
voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a
personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may
intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region.
It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom
the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural
sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion.
In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a
great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46
in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical
catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is
unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era
where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47
paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole
and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time.
One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the
acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per
Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The
acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R
stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication.
48
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication
The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled
with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common
language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In
the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea:
49
‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and
morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component,
exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and
which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224
47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247)
50
speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca
Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146
51
lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made
when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the
Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the
lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined
territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess.
In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in
culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate:
‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir;
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50
The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by
French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that
gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s
main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf
50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143
53
Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua
franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates,
fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate
with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul,
from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early
decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto”
developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian,
51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
54
French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and
words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own
basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to
linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
55
language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language
as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo
mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in
maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in
spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle
sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53
‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin.
It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine,
sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic.
53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237
56
And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have
developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and
developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout
the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of
Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture.
57
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction.
Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80
58
been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is
undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the
region have taken place.
The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean
itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural
exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions
which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence
allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange.
Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the
‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and
amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the
region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region.
As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined
to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and
therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The
59
Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place.
Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes
itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction
between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the
importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean.
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo
‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio
simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57
56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese
(Mesogea: 2000) pp.7
60
‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a
symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’
The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich
would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has
fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries
built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of
authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse
about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary.
Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian
immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his
61
writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin
especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about
his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose
the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole.
Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the
region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel
agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found.
‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che
ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un
piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58
‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one
usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The
Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’
The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who
wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure,
and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and
happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the
Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He
pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean
58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea:
2000) pp.17
62
imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself.
The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used
for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem
externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or
artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since
the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on
interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves
that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63
perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was
fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a
constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary
other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more
organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and
so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the
opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own.
The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a
comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60
, she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined.
It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on
59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
64
land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely
lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea.
Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in
the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute.
The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because
it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the
Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen
through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story
that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of
letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in
Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is
identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a
61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010)
65
voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like
Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of
travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return.
Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he
manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being
built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding
stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a
greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice
violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a
deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In
L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62
, Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds
a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the
modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean
imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed
Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home
62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006)
66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have
maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the
harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be
positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a
positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way
Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their
battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the
Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the
imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such
as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the
recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses
on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His
imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on
repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities.
67
Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from
the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on
the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the
Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille
managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a
Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the
region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways
of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and
identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist,
develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a
Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region.
The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something
that is common, something that is part of a collective memory.
The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a
Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and
on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape
our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal
encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each
author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting
of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular
68
culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it
often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the
sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of
mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. 
Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience
various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the
Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that
managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts.
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture
The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of
popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions.
To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind
the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new
means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been
compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology.
One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as
a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering
the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most
relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the
internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance,
shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use.
The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of
conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam
Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the
traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
70
‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are
rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy
but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most
visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64
The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the
time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the
place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies
in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the
geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic
centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and
this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the
sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the
position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie.
When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media
m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed
Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71
unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The
documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision.
72
A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city
that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and
traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as
crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural
heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement
that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the
ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer.
Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the
Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time
which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying
Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In
the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of
65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014)
66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003)
73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds.
This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus.
What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various
images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver.
The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the
way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour
repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between
67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014)
75
Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French
movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the
country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study.
4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours.
Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to
mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The
harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour.
77
5 Conclusion
The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the
myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed
independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that
have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of
the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68
From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a
place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the
outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by
maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has
developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction
with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a
cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer.
In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre
of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’,
most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the
68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
78
Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its
inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance
with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and
literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and
architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person
approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a
symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which
assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the
‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view
the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that
managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one
hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region
because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes.
On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their
own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also
69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society.
5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean
One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his
The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being
cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different
7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
80
elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the
collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from
reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever
stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social
structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary.
Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are
71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81
accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond
these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself.
Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers.
The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary
comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars.
From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean
holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory.
Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
82
Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor
who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the
Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the
Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining
different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond
the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed
curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that
a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that
Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of
the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an
everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost
different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a
shared Mediterranean imaginary.
The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the
Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern
created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding
similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the
83
Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear
as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and
sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors
are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but
aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different
circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not
aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in
itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is
able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience.
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour
Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean
imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be
taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the
Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity.
Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex
84
identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable.
85
Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the
Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he
always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or
rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things.
72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000)
86
Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived
most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’
country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of
his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person
living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous
identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable.
The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and
Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is
evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 
87
concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as
explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity:
‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical,
coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious
c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and
contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past;
it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually
corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy
choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future,
though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national
borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus,
horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely
a legacy of the past.’ 73
In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may
be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean
history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and
everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now.
The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very
important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary,
73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8
88
being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher.
A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in
understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity
usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common
goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars
show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite
difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study
itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that
contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’.
All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the
sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to
write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region,
89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds
residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that
I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in
his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean
needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in
the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins
Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him
psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as
a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own
identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the
actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an
‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be
transported through time.
The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and
thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of
the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical
meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for
anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself.
90
The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help
of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in
which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal
encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the
region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity.
91
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97 

I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions.
II
Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12
1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20
2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38
3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo
Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69
4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?.
III
Abstract

The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between
civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot.
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1
Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea
(Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104
2
region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
4
of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55
6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the
Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region.
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. 
They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature
shaping the way in which history and culture developed.
The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in
literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the
Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo
Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by
Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two
different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different
periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and
somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore
recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the
authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that
the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on
8
the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the
region, a rich imaginary is created.
The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security
and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a
country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller.
Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience.
9
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power.
The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief,
need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes
of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in
common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a
5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010)
10
spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The
ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence
of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the
Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this
sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the
Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other
hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage.
6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II
(Fontana press: 19 8 6)
11
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the
Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today,
in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014)
www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February,
2014)
13
‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning.
The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it
purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. 
Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and
although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15
1.4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies,
contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.
16
2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients.
17
The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow
constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996)
12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike.
13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007)
19
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372
20
figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009)
21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean.
Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same
contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the
MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger
macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.

‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie
nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure
-penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero
all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17
‘Drunken songs and curses rise up
in the suburban tavern. Here, too,
I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is
drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18
16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
\V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372
22
Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’
with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
23
have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant
geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical
complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986)
20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011)
24
natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love,
between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
25
infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor:
26
‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si
annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il
superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita
come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22
‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we
find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of
limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio”
and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
27
number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
28
Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern
or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the
stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean,
that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea
routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large
and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey
is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
29
deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25
‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of
a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’
This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from
Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010)
30
place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself.
27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
31
Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation
between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56
30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29
32
‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques
and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the
ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural
voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the
quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming
equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history.
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008)
34
and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and
identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25
35
clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una
fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono
i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture,
al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce
l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 
‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a
finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places
where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are
numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one
starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that
give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature.
34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi
(Garzanti elefanti: 2008)
35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53
36
The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s
envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination.
37
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)

38
the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself:
‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured
history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or
restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that
the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole.
37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08
39
The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the
fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards
the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014)
40
eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41
naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere
in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility
The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an
expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and
cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of
spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the
Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage
throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that
could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were
adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As
Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods
were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan
and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to
41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011)
43
divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting.
The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in
the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can
also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that
in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often
projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean.
42 Ibid pp.443
43 Ibid pp.443
44
Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean,
interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and
customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto
have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural
interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in
Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45
voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a
personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may
intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region.
It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom
the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural
sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion.
In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a
great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46
in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical
catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is
unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era
where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47
paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole
and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time.
One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the
acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per
Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The
acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R
stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication.
48
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication
The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled
with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common
language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In
the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea:
49
‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and
morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component,
exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and
which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224
47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247)
50
speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca
Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146
51
lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made
when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the
Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the
lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined
territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess.
In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in
culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate:
‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir;
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50
The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by
French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that
gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s
main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf
50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143
53
Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua
franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates,
fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate
with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul,
from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early
decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto”
developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian,
51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
54
French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and
words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own
basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to
linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
55
language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language
as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo
mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in
maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in
spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle
sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53
‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin.
It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine,
sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic.
53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237
56
And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have
developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and
developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout
the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of
Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture.
57
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction.
Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80
58
been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is
undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the
region have taken place.
The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean
itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural
exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions
which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence
allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange.
Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the
‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and
amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the
region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region.
As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined
to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and
therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The
59
Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place.
Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes
itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction
between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the
importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean.
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo
‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio
simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57
56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese
(Mesogea: 2000) pp.7
60
‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a
symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’
The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich
would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has
fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries
built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of
authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse
about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary.
Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian
immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his
61
writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin
especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about
his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose
the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole.
Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the
region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel
agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found.
‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che
ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un
piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58
‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one
usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The
Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’
The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who
wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure,
and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and
happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the
Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He
pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean
58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea:
2000) pp.17
62
imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself.
The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used
for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem
externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or
artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since
the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on
interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves
that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63
perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was
fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a
constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary
other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more
organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and
so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the
opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own.
The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a
comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60
, she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined.
It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on
59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
64
land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely
lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea.
Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in
the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute.
The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because
it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the
Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen
through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story
that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of
letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in
Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is
identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a
61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010)
65
voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like
Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of
travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return.
Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he
manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being
built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding
stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a
greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice
violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a
deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In
L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62
, Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds
a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the
modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean
imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed
Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home
62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006)
66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have
maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the
harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be
positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a
positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way
Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their
battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the
Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the
imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such
as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the
recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses
on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His
imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on
repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities.
67
Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from
the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on
the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the
Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille
managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a
Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the
region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways
of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and
identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist,
develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a
Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region.
The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something
that is common, something that is part of a collective memory.
The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a
Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and
on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape
our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal
encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each
author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting
of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular
68
culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it
often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the
sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of
mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. 
Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience
various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the
Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that
managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts.
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture
The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of
popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions.
To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind
the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new
means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been
compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology.
One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as
a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering
the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most
relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the
internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance,
shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use.
The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of
conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam
Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the
traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
70
‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are
rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy
but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most
visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64
The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the
time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the
place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies
in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the
geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic
centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and
this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the
sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the
position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie.
When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media
m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed
Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71
unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The
documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision.
72
A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city
that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and
traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as
crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural
heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement
that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the
ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer.
Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the
Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time
which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying
Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In
the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of
65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014)
66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003)
73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds.
This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus.
What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various
images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver.
The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the
way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour
repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between
67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014)
75
Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French
movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the
country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study.
4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours.
Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to
mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The
harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour.
77
5 Conclusion
The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the
myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed
independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that
have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of
the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68
From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a
place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the
outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by
maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has
developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction
with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a
cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer.
In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre
of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’,
most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the
68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
78
Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its
inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance
with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and
literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and
architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person
approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a
symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which
assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the
‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view
the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that
managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one
hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region
because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes.
On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their
own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also
69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society.
5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean
One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his
The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being
cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different
7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
80
elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the
collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from
reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever
stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social
structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary.
Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are
71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81
accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond
these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself.
Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers.
The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary
comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars.
From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean
holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory.
Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
82
Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor
who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the
Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the
Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining
different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond
the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed
curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that
a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that
Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of
the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an
everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost
different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a
shared Mediterranean imaginary.
The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the
Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern
created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding
similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the
83
Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear
as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and
sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors
are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but
aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different
circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not
aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in
itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is
able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience.
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour
Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean
imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be
taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the
Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity.
Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex
84
identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable.
85
Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the
Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he
always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or
rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things.
72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000)
86
Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived
most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’
country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of
his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person
living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous
identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable.
The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and
Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is
evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 
87
concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as
explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity:
‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical,
coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious
c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and
contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past;
it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually
corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy
choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future,
though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national
borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus,
horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely
a legacy of the past.’ 73
In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may
be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean
history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and
everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now.
The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very
important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary,
73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8
88
being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher.
A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in
understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity
usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common
goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars
show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite
difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study
itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that
contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’.
All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the
sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to
write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region,
89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds
residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that
I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in
his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean
needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in
the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins
Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him
psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as
a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own
identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the
actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an
‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be
transported through time.
The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and
thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of
the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical
meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for
anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself.
90
The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help
of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in
which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal
encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the
region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity.
91
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97 

I dedicate this thesis to you, dear father. You showed me with your constant love, that whatever I do with persistence and commitment will open the doors to my destiny. The long nights I spent awake, reading and researching reminded me of the long nights you spent awake working, pennitting me to study and build my future. Your sacrifices are always accompanied by a constant smile that continuously gives me courage in difficult moments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The number of people to whom I owe my accomplishments is far too long to fit on this page, as many have inspired me and given me their constant support which has helped me realize that knowledge could open doors I did not even know existed. Nevertheless, there are a number of people who I would like to mention as they have been there for me during tough times and have given me the support I needed. I would like to thank my family without whom I would not have been able to further my studies, my boyfriend Terry, who has always believed in me and has always been there to support me with his constant love, and my uncle Carlo, who from an early age fed me with books and literature that fostered my love of knowledge and the curiosity to find my inner self. I would also like to thank my dearest colleague Ray Cassar, who always helped me grow both academically and as a person, as well as my tutor and mentor Adrian Grima, who directed me, allowing me to ground and express my ideas better whilst always respecting and valuing my opinions.
II
Table of Contents
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold ………………………………………………………………. 7
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………….. 10
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the Port12
1.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2 The Harbour as Threshold …………………………………………………………………… 1 7
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature …………………….. 20
2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour ………………………. 23
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor …………………………………………………………………. 27
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door ……………………………………………… 34
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse ………………………………………………………… 38
3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility ………………………………………………………….. 43
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication ………. 49
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo
Inspired by the Port ………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo ………………………….. 60
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture ……………………………. 69
4.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
5.1 The ‘Imaginary’ of the Mediterranean ……………………………………………. 80
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour ……………………….. 84
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….. .. 9?.
III
Abstract

The Mediterranean harbour is a place of meeting, of encounters between
civilizations, of clashes, wars, destructions, peace; a place where culture comes to live, where art is expressed in various ways and where authors and thinkers have found inspiration in every comer. The harbour imposes a number of thresholds to the person approaching it. This threshold could have different fonns which could be emotional, geographical, spiritual or cultural. Authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo lived and experienced the Mediterranean harbour in all its aspects and expressions; their powerful experience resulted in the formation of important images referred to as ‘imaginary’. The Mediterranean imaginary is the vision of various authors who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective, but at the same time singular imagination. The harbour is an important part of the Mediterranean geographical structure and thus it has been the main point of study for many examining the region. Factors such as language have transformed and suited the needs of the harbour, being a cultural melting pot.
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean is represented by chaos, especially in the harbour cities that are witness to the myriad of cultures which meet each and every day to discuss and interact in the harbour. It is imperative to state that chaos, as the very basis of a Mediterranean discourse has been fed through the different voices fonned in the region. These same voices, images and interpretations have found a suitable home in the Mediterranean harbours, places where literature and culture managed to flourish and where the so-called ‘margins’, both geographical and social, found centrality. The harbour has acquired significance in the discourse on the Mediterranean and thus on how literature and cultural expedients and the vaiious authors and artists recall the harbour as an anchorage point for their deep thoughts about the region. 1
Nowadays, the unification of the Mediterranean seems a ‘utopia’, since the Mediterranean is politically perceived as a region full of borders and security plans. One may easily mention the various strategic moves put forward by the European Union to safeguard the northern Mediterranean countries from migration from North African shores. By applying and reinforcing these security plans, the Mediterranean has become ever increasingly a region of borders. It is also important not to idealize the Mediterranean past as a unified past, because the 1 Georges Duby Gli ideali def Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea
(Mesogea, 2000) pp.80-104
2
region was always characterized by conflict and chaos. Despite the chaos that was always part of the Mediterranean, being a region of clashing civilizations, it managed to produce a mosaic of various cultures that is visible to the eye of the philosopher or the artist. The artist and the philosopher manage to project their thoughts and ambitions for the region; therefore they are able to see hannony in a region that seems so incoherent. The aim of my thesis is to understand why the harbour is crucial in the construction of the Mediterranean imaginary. Both open space and border, the port, as in the case of Alexandria or Istanbul, has for a long time been a center for trade, commerce and interaction. Therefore, it is imperative to focus on the study of the harbour and harbour cities to be able to give substance to a study about the Mediterranean as a complex of imaginaries. The boundaries in the study about the Mediterranean have a special place; in fact a boundary that may be either geographical or political has the ability to project and create very courageous individuals that manage to transgress and go over their limits when facing the ‘other’. In the Mediterranean we perceive that the actual reason for transgressing and overcoming a limit is the need of confonning or confronting the ‘other’, sometimes a powerful ‘other’ able to change and shift ideas, able to transpose or impose cultural traits. Yet, the Mediterranean in its multicultural environment has been able to maintain certain traits that have shaped what it is today. Through movement of people in the region, the Mediterranean has been able to produce a number of great innovations, such as the movement of the Dorians who moved from the south all along the 3 Greek peninsula, and also the ‘sea people’ that came from Asia and, being hungry and thirsty, destroyed whatever they found. The same destruction and movement resulted in the creation of three important factors for the Mediterranean: the creation of currency, the alphabet, and marine navigation as we know it today. The various movements also contributed to the fonnation of the person as a free being with the ability to move freely. Therefore, movement and the overcoming of boundaries in the Mediterranean have contributed greatly to the fonnation of civilization itself.2 A board, today found in the museum of Damascus, with an alphabet very similar to the Latin one written on it, was very useful as it was very simple in its structure. This confirms a high level of democracy, as civilization meant that each individual had the possibility of knowing and understanding what his leaders understood. We get to understand that in the Mediterranean each person can practice his freedom by travelling out at sea and engage in trading. All this was made possible by the same interactions and conflicts raised in the region. Conflicts though are not the only factor that promoted the interaction and the fonnation of interesting cultural and literature in the Mediterranean, as we know it today. Art and culture have been means by which the various conflicts and interactions took life and expressed the deep feelings that inhabited the soul 2 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, filosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
4
of the artist. Karl Popper3 states that the cultural mixture alone is not sufficient to put the grounds for a civilization and he gives the example of Pisistratus, a Greek tyrant that ordered to collect and copy all the works of Homer. This made it possible to have a book fair a century later and thus spread the knowledge of Homer. Karl Popper wants to tell us that art and culture have deeply influence the fonnation of a general outset of the region and that the fonnation of the general public is not something that comes naturally, but is rather encouraged. The Greeks in this sense were directly fed the works of Homer by the diffusion of the works themselves. On the other hand, the majority of Greeks already knew how to read and write, further enabling the diffusion of knowledge. Art and architecture are two important factors that have detennined the survival of empires and cultures through time. When artists such as Van Gogh were exposed to the Mediterranean, they expressed art in a different way and when Van Gogh came in contact with the Mediterranean region, the French Riviera and Provence in particular, he discovered a new way of conceiving art. In a letter that Van Gogh wrote to his sister in 1888, he explained that the impact the Mediterranean had on him had changed the way he expressed art itself. He told her that the colours are now brighter, being directly inspired by the nature and passions of the region. The Mediterranean inspired Van Gogh to use a different kind of colour palette. If the art expressed by Van Gogh that is inspired by the Mediterranean is directly 3 Georges Duby Gli ideali del Mediterraneo, storia, jilosofia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp. 80-104
5 represented and interpreted by the spectator, the region manages to be transposed through the action of art itself.4 The way in which the thesis is structured aims to focus on the vanous images created by poets, popular music and art. Each chapter provides evidence that the harbour has been the centre of attention for the many authors and thinkers who wrote, discussed and painted the Mediterranean. The thesis aims to prove that certain phenomena such as language and religion have contributed to a knit of imaginaries, the layout of certain events such as the ex-voto in the Mediterranean and the use of Sabir or Lingua Franca Mediterranea, which shows how the harbour managed to be the center of events that shaped the cultural heritage of the Mediterranean. The language and religious movement mentioned have left their mark on the Mediterranean countries, especially the harbour cities, which were the first cities encountered. The choice of the harbour cities as the representation and the loci of a Mediterranean imaginary vision is by no means a casual one. In fact, the harbour for many centuries has been the anchorage point not only in the physical sense but also emotionally and philosophically for many authors and thinkers, two of which are Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo, extensively mentioned in the dissertation. These two authors are relevant for the purpose of this study as they manage to create a vision of the Mediterranean, based on their personal experience and influenced by 4 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo, storia, jilosojia e letteratura nella cultura europea (Mesogea,2000) pp.43-55
6 the harbour from which they are looking at the region and observing the
Mediterranean. Popular culture ‘texts’ such as movies and music based on the interaction between the person and the Mediterranean region have an important role in the study, as they represent the first encounter with the harbour. It is a known fact that in the postmodern era where technological means have a broader and deeper reach, popular culture has become the first harbour in which many find anchorage. Therefore it would be difficult to mention literature works that have shaped the Mediterranean without mentioning the popular texts that have constructed images about the region that intertwine and fonn a complete and powerful image. The relevance of each factor is well defined in this study, delving deep in not only popular culture but also in language and various historical events that have transformed the Mediterranean, providing examples of how factors such as geographical elements, spirituality, devotion and passion have transfonned the way in which we perceive a region.
1.1 The Harbour as Threshold The first chapter focuses on the harbour as a threshold between stability and instability, between wealth and poverty, between mobility and ilmnobility. The various elements that constitute the harbour always convey a sense of ‘in between’ to the person approaching. The very fact that the harbour seems to be a place of insecurity gives the artists and authors a more stimulating environment to 7 write about their feelings and to contrast them with the ever-changing and chaotic enviromnent of the harbour. The way in which the natural landscape manages to influence the poetic and artistic expression is of great relevance to the study of the Mediterranean region, especially with regards to the study of the harbour. Poets such as Saba and Montale wrote about the way in which nature felt as a personified figure, able to give hope and change the way poets look at the world. 
They also wrote about nature in the Mediterranean as being an impmiant feature
shaping the way in which history and culture developed.
The sailor as a representation of a Mediterranean traveller is often found in
literature especially with regards to the notion of the harbour as an image of the
Mediterranean culture. Many authors such as Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo
Consolo wrote about the figure of the sailor in relation to the sea and everyday life in Mediterranean harbours. The novels fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio by
Vincenzo Consolo and Les Marins Perdus by Jean-Claude Izzo are written in two
different geographical areas of the Mediterranean and reflect two different
periods, but they are tied by an expression of a Meditemm~im i1rn1eirn1ry and
somehow recall common features and aspects of the harbour. Both novels manage to transpose their authors’ personal encounter with the Mediterranean, therefore
recalling their own country of birth. The novels are somewhat personal to the
authors; Consolo recalls Sicily while Izzo often refers to Marseille. The fact that
the novels are projecting two different areas and two different points of view on
8
the Mediterranean proves that by gathering different experiences related to the
region, a rich imaginary is created.
The harbour is a door, an entryway to a new world, and borders. Security
and expectations are all part of the experience of the threshold when entering a
country, especially in the Mediterranean, where thresholds are constantly present and signify a new and exciting experience that leads to a new interpretation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The way in which the harbour acts as an entryway suggests that what lies beyond the harbour is sometimes a mystery to the traveller.
Literature greatly contributes to the fonnation of ideas, especially in regard to the fonnation of thoughts such as the idea of a Mediterranean imaginary, but there is another element of fundamental importance to the formation of ideas on a generic line, which is popular culture. High-culture, referring to elements such as art, literature, philosophy and scholarly writings, creates a common understanding between an educated public. Popular culture refers to the section of culture that has a common understanding between the public. High-culture and popular culture have the power to transform what is mostly regarded as pertaining to high society; literature is constantly being reinterpreted and transfonned by popular culture to be able to reach a greater audience.
9
1.2 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The imp01iance of natural landscape which detennines the success or failure of a harbour, also detennines a number of historical events. In this sense, the Mediterranean is a region that has been naturally set up with a number of very important harbours that consequently fonned a particular history. The image of the harbour could be compared to the image of the lighthouse, which is part of the harbour itself but at the same is a distinct entity that in some cases had a role which went beyond its initial role of guidance and assumed almost a function of spiritual assistance. 5 The symbol of the lighthouse is also tied to knowledge and therefore the lighthouse has the ability to give knowledge to the lost traveller at sea, it is able to show the way even in uncertainties. The lighthouses in the Mediterranean had the ability to change through ages and maintain a high historical and cultural meaning; their function is a matter of fact to give direction to the traveller, but in certain cases it has been used to demarcate a border or as a symbol of power.
The Mediterranean Sea has witnessed different exchanges, based on belief,
need and sometimes even based solely on the search of sel£ Among these modes
of exchange and these pretexts of voyage in the Mediterranean, we find the exvoto and the movement of relics. Both types of exchange in the region have in
common at the basis religion that instilled in the traveller a deep wish to follow a
5 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti: 2010)
10
spiritual path. These exchanges resulted in an increasing cultural exchange. The
ex-voto6 shows a number of things. One of these things is that the very existence
of ex-voto proves a deep connection with the geographical aspect in the
Mediterranean and therefore proving that the region is a dangerous one. In this
sense, people in the Mediterranean have shown their gratitude to God or the
Virgin Mary in the fonn of ex-voto after a difficult voyage at sea. On the other
hand, the ex-voto shows how popular culture mingles with the spiritual experience and the way in which a person expresses gratitude to the divine. The ex-voto paintings have a special way of being identified. The saint or in most cases Virgin Mary, is usually set in a cloud or unattached from the sea in a tempest. Another element that shows if a painting is or is not part of an ex-voto collection, is the acronyms found in the bottom of every painting V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit). The use of Latin demonstrates the vicinity to Christianity, whilst the words meaning that ‘I made a vow and I received grace’ prove the tie between the tragedies at sea and the grace given by God. The difficult Mediterranean geographical predisposition, discussed by Femand Braudel7 has developed an abundance of devotion that transformed to shrines and objects of adoration and gratitude. These same shrines, objects and materials that were most of the time exchanged and taken from one place to another, have deeply enriched the Mediterranean with cultural objects and the same shrines are nowadays part of a collective cultural heritage.
6 Joseph Muscat Il-Kwadri ex-voto Martittimi Maltin (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2003) 7 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II
(Fontana press: 19 8 6)
11
1.3 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Izzo and Consolo Inspired by the
Port The Mediten-anean for Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo revolves around the idea of a harbour that gives inspiration because it is in essence a border where ideas meet and sometimes find concretization. The Mediterranean harbour for centuries has been a meeting place for people and cultures, thus creating a region full of interactions on different levels. The imaginary for both authors has been shaped by both cultural elements and by the literary elements that find a special place in the mindset of the author. Culture as a popular expression of the concept of the Mediten-anean has developed in different ways, one of which is the projection of the harbour and the Mediterranean itself through media and advertising. Various elements such as the touristic publicity or the actual reportage about the harbour and the Mediten-anean have widened the horizon and the imaginary of the region. In advertisements, the Mediterranean has been idealized in some ways and tends to ignore controversial issues such as ‘migration’; advertising also tends to generalize about the Mediterranean and so mentions elements such as the peaceful and relaxing way of life in the region. Advertisement obviously has its own share in the building of an ‘imaginary’ of the region, but it may also create confusion as to what one can expect of the region. On the other hand, the reportage about the Mediterranean harbour and the region itself focuses more on everyday life in the Mediterranean and common interactions such as encounters with fishennen. Nevertheless, when mentioning 12 the MediteITanean even the reportage at times makes assumptions that try to unite the MediteITanean into an ideal space and it sometimes aims to give an exotic feel to the region. Yet there are a number of informative films that have gathered important material about the MediteITanean, such as the French production Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus, produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2.8 The difference between the usual promotional or adve1iising video clips and the documentary film produced for France 2 was that in the latter the focus points were an expression of the beauty of the whole, whereas in the fonner, beauty usually lies in the common features that for marketing purposes aim to synthesize the image of the Mediterranean for a better understating and a more clear approach to the region. The harbour and other vanous words associated to the concept of the harbour have been used in many different spaces and areas of study to signify many different things other than its original meaning, and this makes us realize that the harbour itself may hold various metaphorical meanings. We have seen the way in which the harbour served as a first spiritual refuge or as an initial salvation point, but it is also interesting to note how the harbour is conceptually seen today,
in an era where globalization has shortened distances and brought down barriers. Nowadays, the harbour is also used as a point of reference in the various technological terms especially in relation to the internet, where the ‘port’ or 8 Yan Arthus-Betrand Mediteranee notre mer a taus (France 2, 2014)
www.yannarthusbertrand.org/ en/films-tv/–mediterranee-notre-mer-a-tous (accessed February,
2014)
13
‘portal’ refers to a point of entry and thus we perceive the main purpose of the harbour as being the first point of entry as is in the context of infonnation technology. The concept of core and periphery has deeply changed in the world of Internet and technology, as the concept of core and periphery almost disappeared. Similarly, the Mediterranean’s core and pe1iphery have always been in a way different from what is considered to be the nonn. Geographically, the core could be seen as the central area, the place where things happen, whereas in the Mediterranean, the periphery acquires almost the function of the core. The harbour is the geographical periphery; neve1iheless, it acquires the function of the core. The islands for example are usually centres, whereas in the Mediterranean they are crossroads rather than real centres of power. In nonnal circumstances the relation between core and periphery is something that denotes not only the geographical location of a place but it usually also refers to economical, social and cultural advancement. Therefore, in the Mediterranean region the concept of geographical centre and economical and social centres are different from their usual intended meaning.
The Mediterranean imaginary has developed in such a way that it
purposely distorted the concepts such as the standard core and periphery or the usual relationship between men and nature or between men and the various borders. In the Mediterranean imaginary, which as we have mentioned is being fed by various authors and popular discourse, has the ability to remain imprinted in our own thoughts and thus has the ability to reinterpret the region itself; we find 14 that the usual conceptions change because they suit not only the region but the author that is writing about the region. The way in which the various authors and artists who describe the Mediterranean are faced with the ongoing challenges presented by the region shows how in essence each and every author has their own personal approach to the region. Their works are essentially a personal project which lead to the enriclunent of the region’s imaginary. The differences between each and every author makes the ‘imaginary’ and the accounts about the Mediterranean much more interesting and ersonalized. 
Consolo9 and Izzo10 have different ways of perceiving the region and
although they both aim to create an ‘imaginary’ that may recall similar features, it is undeniable that there are substantial differences in their approach. Consolo on the one hand focuses a lot on the image of Ulysses as a figure that represents him in his voyage in search of the self. Ulysses for Consolo is a figure that manages to preserve a meaning even in the modem era, a figure that is able to travel through time all the while reinventing the Mediterranean. Izzo as well feels that the figure of Ulysses is imperative to the study of the Mediterranean, but he mostly focuses on the impact of the present experience of the region on the conception of a Mediterranean ‘imaginary’ rather than focusing on the past as a representation of the present situation. 9 Vincenzo Consolo Il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori: 2012) 10 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) 15
1.4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean has been seen as a region full of inconsistencies,
contradictions and conflicts, based mainly on the divergent ideas and cultures residing in the same area. The Mediterranean imaginary does not exclude the conflicts that are present in the region and does not aim to unify the region, and in doing so it aims to give voice to the region. For the various authors and thinkers that are mentioned in the thesis, the Mediterranean has transmitted an emotion or has been able to create the right environment to express ideas and fonn thoughts. The relevance of each and every author within the framework of this thesis shows that without analyzing the single expression about the region, through the various works, one cannot fonn an imaginary of the Mediterranean region. The various concepts of borders, thresholds, conflicts and cultural clashes manage to mingle with each other in everyday life in the Mediterranean – greater ideas and fundamental questions find resonance and meaning in simple everyday interaction between a common sailor and a woman at a bar. The Mediterranean in essence is the voyage between the search for deep roots and the analysis of the clashes that result from this search for roots. The study of the Mediterranean is the constant evaluation of boundaries and the search for the ‘self’ through a wholly subjective analysis of the ‘other’. The imaginary plays a fundamental role in bringing near the ‘roots’ and the ‘present’, and the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.
16
2 The Harbour as Threshold The Mediterranean harbour for many authors and thinkers is a starting point as well as a dying point of the so called ‘Mediterranean culture’. In fact many sustain that the ‘MediteITanean culture’ takes place and transfonns itself in its harbours. This concept does not have to confuse us in assuming that a ‘Mediterranean culture’ in its wholesomeness really does exist. There are elements and features that seem to tie us; that the sea so generously brought ashore. On the other hand the same sea has been keeping things well defined and separate. The harbour as the first encounter with land has always maintained an important role in the formation of ideas and collective imagination. The harbour is not selective in who can or cannot approach it and so the fonnation of this collective imagination is a vast one. It is also important to state that the harbour in itself is a place of contradictions, a place where everything and nothing meet. The contrasting elements and the contradictions that reside in Mediterranean ports are of inspiration to the various authors and thinkers who study the Mediterranean. In this sense they have contributed in the formation of this Mediterranean imagination. Literature is an important factor that contributes to a fonnation of a collective imagination; it would be otherwise difficult to analyze the Mediterranean without the help of literature, as the fonnation of a collective imagination was always fed through literature and cultural expedients.
17
The Mediterranean region, as we shall see, is an area that is somehow
constructed; a person in France may not be aware of what a person in Morocco or in Turkey is doing. The concept of a constructed Mediterranean may be tied to the anthropological study conducted by Benedict Anderson 11 where he states that the ‘nation’ is a constructed concept and may serve as a political and somehow economic pretext. The sea is navigated by both tragic boat people and luxurious cruise liners, and these contradictions seem to be legitimized in the Mediterranean region. To give two recent examples we can observe on a political sphere, the European Union’s decision to fonn a Task Force for the Mediterranean (TFM) whose aims are to enhance the security of its shores and to drastically reduce deaths at sea. The TFM is a recent initiative that follows a number of proposals at a political level that have the Mediterranean security at heart. 12 This idea was triggered by a particular event that saw the death of 500 migrants off Lampedusa. It clearly poses a question whether the Mediterranean is a safe place or not, and whether it remains in this sense appealing to touristic and economic investment. The TFM probably reinforces the idea that the Mediterranean is a problematic region and thus requires ongoing ‘security’. To reconnect to the main idea, the TFM reinforces the notion that the Mediterranean is a constructed idea where access from one shore to another is denied and where one shore is treated as a security threat whereas the other shore is treated as an area to be protected or an 11 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities (Verso, 1996)
12 Brussels, 4.12.2013 COM (2013) 869 Communicationjiwn the commission to the European Parliament and the council on the work of the Task Force Mediterranean 18 area that is unreachable. The contradictions keep on adding up when we see the way the Mediterranean is portrayed for economic and touristic purposes. One example is the ‘Mediterranean port association’ that helps the promotion of cruising in the Mediterranean region providing assistance to tourists who would like to travel in the region. In this context the Mediterranean is used in a positive way in relation to the touristic appeal it may have. The construction of a Mediterranean idea is by no means restricted to an economical or a political discourse; it has deeper roots and meanings that have fonned through a history of relations between countries and of fonnations of literary expedients. For Franco Cassano13, the Mediterranean is a region that in essence is made of differences, it would be otherwise difficult to justify the clashes that have characterized the Mediterranean history, if it was not for the fact that we are all aware that it is a region made up of dissimilarities On the other hand it is due to these dissimilarities that the Mediterranean is an appealing region both for authors and for travelers alike.
13 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano:Feltrinelli, 2007)
19
2.1 Natural Landscape and the Development of Literature Nature and literature are two elements that intertwine and thus create a collective imagination around the concept of the Mediterranean harbour. In fact, the dialectic between natural landscape and poetic expression was always a matter of great relevance as nature constantly managed to aid the development of poetic expression. The natural landscape helps the fonnation of existential thoughts, such as life, death and the existence of men – thoughts that are always reinterpreted and reinvented through literature. This relation between men and nature was always important in configuring spaces and detennining them according to a common understanding. 14 In the poem of Giacomo Leopardi Dialogo delta Natura e di un Islandese, Nature is personified, and although the indifference and coldness of nature is palpable, we sense that the poet is being aided by nature in fanning his ideas about life itself. Through time and especially through globalization, the world is being interpreted in terms of geographical maps and technology is subsequently narrowing our concept of space and enlarging our concept of life. In the new modem dimension, where the concept of space has acquired an abstract meaning, literature leaves the possibility of dialectic relationship between men and nature, thus enabling men to perceive the places they inhabit as a significant part of their self-construction process. This concept takes us to the perception created around the Mediterranean region and especially the way people look at 14 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo de/la contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Quest: 2009) pp.358-372
20
figures such as the sea, the ports and the shores. In Giambattista Vico’s15 poetic geography we understand that the representation of geography through poetic expression is something that dates back in time, through a cosmic representation of senses and feelings. In this regard, Montale and Saba both express in a relatively modem tone the deep representation of the Mediterranean through a mixture of contrasting feelings and ideas. The image of the harbor and any other images in the Mediterranean are deeply felt and analyzed, through the eyes of the poets that live in the region. Montale uses the dialectic of memory to explain his relationship with the Mediterranean, a region locked in its golden age that lives through the memory of poets and authors. He refers to the Mediterranean as ‘Antico ‘ emphasizing the fact that it is an old region. The word ‘Antico ‘ does not merely refer to oldness, but to oldness combined with prestige. The memory characterizes the Mediterranean for Montale, the image of the sea for instance is an archaic image that notwithstanding holds a modem and yet spiritual meaning as it expresses a sense of purification. The sea with its movement brings ashore all the useless and unwanted elements. On the other hand the sea may be seen as a fatherly figure that becomes severe in its actions and makes the poet feel insignificant and intimidated. Montale’s aim was to overcome the threshold between artistic expression and natural landscape through a dialogue with the Mediterranean Sea. This aim was not fulfilled. Montale tried hard to express artistically what the Mediterranean Sea meant but ended his poem humbly putting himself at a lower stage in comparison to the greatness of the Sea. Montale fills 15Massimo Lollini Il Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009)
21 his poetry with a mixture of humility and paradoxes; two elements that keep on repeating themselves in the poetry concerning the MeditelTanean.
Furthennore, in Umberto Saba’s ‘Medite1Taneet16 we encounter the same
contrasts and paradoxes used by Montale to develop the figure of the
MeditetTanean Sea. Saba uses the microcosm of Trieste to explain a larger
macrocosm: The MeditetTanean. This technique renders his work more personal and gives it a deeper meaning. Saba and Montale both rely on the memory to express a feeling of deep ties with the element of the sea and the life of the MeditelTanean harbour. Saba’s MeditelTanean resides in his microcosm, personal encounters and experiences fonn his ideas about the region; a region he perceives as being full of fascinating contradictions.

‘Ebbri canti si levano e bestemmie
nell’Osteria suburbana. Qui pure
-penso- e Mediterraneo. E il mio pensiero
all’azzulTo s’inebbria di quel nome.’ 17
‘Drunken songs and curses rise up
in the suburban tavern. Here, too,
I think, is the Mediterranean. And my mind is
drunk with the azure of that name.’ 18
16 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
\V\V\V. worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/songbook excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
17 Massimo Lollini fl Mediterraneo della contingenza metafisica di montale all’apertura etica di Saba (Presses Universitaires Paris Ouest: 2009) pp.358-372
22
Saba mingles his personal classicist fonnation expressed in the ‘all’azzurro’
with the poorest part of the Mediterranean harbour ‘l’osteria’. Both factors are intertwining, and so, the Mediterranean for Saba is the combination of both the richness of classicist thoughts that fonned in the Mediterranean as well as the meager elements that fonned in its po1is; yet they embellish and enrich the concept of the Mediterranean. Saba is searching for his personal identity through the search for a definition to the Mediterranean. In his art he attempts to portray the very heart of the MediteITanean which is found in his abyss of culture and knowledge with the everyday simple life of the harbours. 2.2 Instability vs. Stability in the Mediterranean Harbour In Saba and Montale’s works, the fascinating inconsistencies in the Mediterranean seem to find a suitable place in the ports and in the minds of each and every author and thinker who encounters it. The notion of stability and instability finds its apex in the port. The sea is the synonym of instability, especially in the Mediterranean, being depicted as dangerous and unpredictable. As in the recounts of the Odyssey, the sea, and the Mediterranean as a whole, is a synonym of instability and thus prone to natural catastrophes. The Homeric recounts of Ulysses’ journey explore the Mediterranean that was previously an unknown place. Although the places mentioned by Homer are fictitious, they now 18 Umberto Saba, translated by George Hochfield: Song book the selected poems of Umberto Saba
www.worldrepublicofletters.com/excerpts/song:book _excerpt.pdf (accessed, July 2014)
23
have a general consensus over the definition of the actual places. As time went by historians and authors went on confinning what Homer had depicted in his Odyssey – a Mediterranean that constantly poses a challenge, danger and fascination at the same time. Femand Braudel in his ‘Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip the II’ 19 sustains the view of a difficult Mediterranean, of a succession of events that have helped the success of the Mediterranean for a period of time. Its instability and complication have not aided the area in maintaining its ‘golden age’. This discourse was reinvented by Horden and Purcell in ‘The Corrupting Sea’20 where the Mediterranean meets geographically, historically and anthropologically. In ‘The Corrupting Sea’ the view of Femand Braudel is expanded into what the Mediterranean meant
geographically and historically, therefore Horden and Purcell explain that the inconsistencies and natural features in the Mediterranean really contributed to bring the ‘golden age’ to an end, but they were the same features that brought on the rich culture around the Mediterranean countries in the first place. Where literature is concerned, the inconsistencies and natural features served as an inspiration to various authors who went on fonning the collective imagination around the Mediterranean. Therefore, it could be argued that the geographical
complexity of the region is in fact the tying point to the ‘Mediterranean’ itself that resides in the unconscious and that otherwise would have died with its economical shift towards other areas of interest. The problematic identity and the challenging 19 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986)
20 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing: 2011)
24
natural enviromnent brought by an ongomg sense of curiosity and attraction towards the Mediterranean region. The port is the first encounter with stability after a journey that is characterized by instability, at the surprise of the inexperienced traveler. However, the port does not always covey immovability. The p01i gives a sense of limbo to the traveller that has just arrived. It is a safe place on the one hand but on the other hand due to its vicinity to the sea, it is as unpredictable as the sea itself The sailor is a frequent traveler who knows and embraces the sea. He chose or has been forced to love the sea, to accept the sea as his second home. The sailor is in fact the figure that can help us understand the fascination around the Mediterranean and its ports. It is not an unknown factor that sailors and their voyages have captured the attention of many authors that tried extensively to understand the affinity sailors have to the sea. The sailor21 is a man defined by his relation with the sea and is a recurrent figure in a number of literature works all over Europe and the rest of the world. The sailor is the incarnation of the concept of human marginality, he lives in the margin of life and he embraces the marginality of the harbour with the different aspects of the port. The thresholds present in the port are represented by the sailor; a figure that lives between the sea and land, between betrayal and pure love,
between truth and lie. Like the portrayal of Odysseus, the concept of a sailor has 21 Nora Moll Marinai Ignoti,perduti (e nascosti). fl Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Lare} (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
25
infidelic properties. He carnally betrays his loved one, but he is psychologically anchored to one women for his whole life; a women who is always present in various thoughts but at the same time she is always physically distant. As we will see in various works, the sailor is in constant search of knowledge – the very same knowledge that brought him to love and embrace the sea. The knowledge that is conveyed through the action of travelling itself is another question that would require a deep analysis, but for the sake of our study the fact that knowledge is transmitted through the depth of the sea is enough to make a com1ection with the purpose by which the sailor travels. The sailor fluctuates between sea and land, between danger and security, between knowledge and inexperience. The thresholds are constantly overcome by the curious and free spirited sailor that embarks in this voyage to the discovery of his inner-self. The literary voyage of the sailor in the Mediterranean takes a circular route while it goes deep in ancient history and ties it to modem ideas. Since the sailor is not a new character but a recurring one in literature and culture it has the ability to transfonn and create ideas giving new life to the Mediterranean harbours. While the seamen are the link between the high literature and the popular culture, the sailor does not have a specific theme in literature but the archetype of ‘the sailor’ has a deep resonance in many literary themes. As Nora Moll states in one of her studies about the image of the sailor, she puts forward a list of common themes associated with the image of the sailor:
26
‘Tra i complessi tematici, a cm m parte ho gia accem1ato,si
annoverano l’avventura, il viaggio, l’eros, l’adulterio, il ritorno, il
superamento di limiti (interiori) e di sfide ( esterne ), la liberta, la vita
come “navigatio” e come intrigo conflittuale di esperienze. ’22
‘Amongst the complex themes, which I partly already mentioned, we
find adventure, travel, Eros, adultery, the return, the overcoming of
limits (interior) and challenges (exterior), freedom, life as “navigatio”
and as a conflictual intrigue (or scheme) of experiences.’
2.3 The Prototypical Sailor The interesting fact about the study conducted by Nora Moll is that the sailor in her vision is not merely a figure tied to a specific social class, but as we can see the themes listed are themes that can be tied also to the figure of Ulysses. It is difficult to say that Ulysses or the image of the sailor own a predestined set of themes, and in fact they do not necessarily do so. Ulysses is a character that comprehends certain themes, but these change and shift in accordance to space, time and circumstances. What does not change is the thresholds that are always present in the life of a sailor, the limits that are constantly there to be overcome and the external challenges that need to be confronted. The harbour conveys a 22 Nora Moll Marinai Jgnoti,perduti (e nascosti). I! Mediterraneo di Vincenzo Consolo, JeanClaude Izzo e Waciny Larej (Roma: Bulzoni 2008) pp.94-95
27
number of thresholds; as we have seen these are embodied in the figure of the manner. Jean Claude Izzo in his Les Marins Perdus23 wrote about the discomfort of sailors having to forcedly stay on land and their relationship with the harbor, a passing place that has a special meaning. The harbor is in fact a special place for the mariner, as it is the only place where they can have human contact beyond that of the crew. The mariner in Jean Clause Izzo does not feel that he belongs to any nation or country. He belongs to the sea; a sea that managed to give meaning to his life but at the same time managed to destroy it. Jean Claude Izzo uses strong images of the port to describe the tie the sailor has to the harbour itself, he uses sexual and erotic images and ties them to legends and popular culture expedients. The story is interesting because of the way Jean Claude Izzo reverses the way sailors live. In fact he recreates a story where the sailor is trapped in the harbour and so he is forced to view the sea from land and not the other way round as he usually does. The psychological discomfort that Jean Claude Izzo creates portrays the Mediterranean archetypes and the life in the ports from a reverse point of view. Everyday life in the harbour is analyzed through a succession of tragedies that on one hand recall the classicist view of the Mediterranean, and on the other hand, due to references to everyday life elements, may be easily connected to the modem conception of the Mediterranean port. The links created by Jean Claude Izzo are made on purpose to create an ongoing bond between the classic Homeric 23 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
28
Mediterranean and the modem Mediterranean. In fact, Diamantis -the mam character of the novel- is portrayed as a modem Ulysses trying to cope with ongoing temptations and with the constant drive for knowledge. The Odyssey is for Diamantis a point of anchorage. He reads the Odyssey while attempting to define himself: ‘In effetti l’Odissea non ha mai smesso di essere raccontata, da una taverna all’altra,di bar in bar: … e Ulisse e sempre fra noi. La sua eterna giovinezza e nelle storie che continuiamo a raccontarci anche oggi se abbiamo ancora un avvenire nel Mediterraneo e di sicuro li. [ … ]I porti del Mediterraneo … sono delle strade. ’24 ‘Yes … In fact, the Odyssey has constantly been retold, in every tavern
or bar … And Odysseus is still alive among us. Eternally young, in the
stories we tell, even now. If we have a future in the Mediterranean,
that’s where it lies.” [ … ] “The Mediterranean means … routes. Sea
routes and land routes. All joined together. Connecting cities. Large
and small. Cities holding each other by the hand.’ In this quote we see the continuous threshold between space and time being overcome, that serves to keep alive the Mediterranean itself. It is clear that the classic Homeric recount is always reinterpreted and reinvented. The Odyssey
is not the only point of reflection for Diamantis. In fact the protagonist is seen as a 24 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.238
29
deep character that reflects on the various incidents in his life and it could be argued that Diamantis is the expression of Jean Claude Izzo’s thoughts. The sailors in Jean Claude Izzo’s novel chose to be Mediterranean; naval commerce exists beyond the enclosed sea, but these men chose to sail with inadequate ships in a region where geographical beauty and historical richness meet. The port for Izzo, has multiple meanings and he defines the Mediterranean harbours as differing from other harbours, because of the way they are accessed. Izzo uses the image of the harbour as a representation of love: ‘Vedi, e’ il modo in cui puo essere avvicinato a detenninare la natura di un porto. A detenninarlo veramente [ … ] Il Mediterraneo e’ un mare di prossimita’. ’25
‘You see, it’s the way it can be approached that detennines the nature of
a port. Really detennines it. [ … ] The Mediterranean, a sea of closeness.’
This passage shows the influence of thought, Izzo inherited from
Matvej evic. In fact the approach used to describe the harbour and to depict the nature is very similar to the one used by Matvejevic in his ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’. 26 We perceive that the harbour is substantially a vehicle of devotion, love, passion and Eros, though we may also observe the threshold between the love and passion found in the port and the insecurity and natural brutality that the sea may convey. In this novel, the port is transfonned in a secure 25 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) ppl22 26 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010)
30
place whilst the sea is a synonym of tragedy. At the same time the port is seen as a filthy and conupt place. While for Izzo the past is used as a background to tie with the present and moreover to show a link with the future, Consolo uses a different technique. He goes deep in one focal historical point to highlight certain Mediterranean features and problematic issues. Consolo uses the period of time where Sicily was undergoing various political changes. He describes the revolution and the Italian unification, and portrays real events and characters tied to Sicilian history. In Vincenzo Consolo, the image of the sailor is used as a metaphor through the work of Antonello ‘il Sorriso dell’Ignoto Marinaio’.27 The title itself gives us a hint of the tie between art and everyday life. The voices that intertwine and form the discourse around the Mediterranean are hard to distinguish as they have fanned the discourse itself to a point where a voice or an echo is part of another. The work of Consolo28 goes through a particular historical period in Sicily to describe present situations and ongoing paradoxes in the Mediterranean region. It is difficult to resume and give a name and specific allocation to the works on the Mediterranean as the multiple faces and voices have consequently fanned a variety of literature and artistic works. The beauty behind works on the Mediterranean is that archetypes such as the concept of a ‘sailor’ or the ‘harbour’ are revisited and reinterpreted, thus acquiring a deeper meaning and at the same time enriching the meaning of ‘the Mediterranean’ itself.
27 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
28 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’lgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012)
31
Consolo focuses on the microcosm of Sicily and he portrays a fluctuation
between sea and land. He locates Sicily in an ideal sphere where the thresholds are nonexistent: ‘La Sicilia! La Sicilia! Pareva qualcosa di vaporoso laggiù nell’azzurro tra mare e cielo, me era l’isola santa! ’29 ‘Sicily! Sicily! It seemed something vaporous down there in the blue between sea and sky, but it was the holy island!’ Sicily is placed in an ideal sphere where beautiful natural elements coexist with famine, degradation and war. The imagery created around the island of Sicily may be comparable to the imagery around the Mediterranean region. As for the harbour it is described by Consolo as a place of contradictions, comparable to the ones found in the whole Mediterranean. The detail given to the life in the port is extremely in depth and the type of sentences used expresses the frenetic lifestyle of the port itself: ‘Il San Cristofaro entrava dentro il porto mentre ne uscivano le barche, caicchi e gozzi, coi pescatori ai rami alle corde vele reti lampe sego stoppa feccia, trafficanti con voce urale e con richiami, dentro la barca, tra barca e barca, tra barca e la banchina, affollata di vecchi, di donne e di bambini, urlanti parimenti e agitati [ … ].’30 29 Vincenzo Consolo fl sorriso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:56
30 Vincenzo Consolo fl so1-riso dell’Jgnoto Marinaio (Oscar Mondadori:2012) pp:29
32
‘The San Cristoforo sailed into the harbour whilst the boats, caiques
and other fishing boats, sailed out with the fishennen holding the
ropes sails nets tallow oakum lee, traffickers beckoning with an ural
voice, inside the boat, from one boat to another, from one boat to the
quay, crowded with the elderly, women and children, screaming
equally and agitated’ [ … ] The tension around the port is well transmitted in the explanation given by Consolo, there seems to be a point of nothingness and a point of departure at the same time. We perceive that there is plenty of life in the port but at the same time confusion reigns, therefore we could argue that people in ports are not really conscious of life and that they are letting things turn. Nevertheless, the port is the starting point of life that develops either in the sea or inland. Both by Consolo and in Izzo we are made aware of the importance of life at the ‘starting point’, therefore the port in the works of both authors acquires the title of a ‘threshold’ between life and death, consciousness and unconsciousness, love and hatred, nature and artifice, aridity and fertility. In the microcosm described by Consolo, the Sicilian nature and its contradictions seem to recall the ones in the rest of the region. For example, the painting ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ is described as a contradictory painting. In fact, the sailor is seen as an ironic figure that smiles notwithstanding the tragedies he has encountered. The ‘Ignoto Marinaio’ has seen the culture and history of the Mediterranean unveil, he has therefore a strange smile that 33 expresses the deep knowledge acquired through his experience and a deep look that convey all the suffering he has come upon. In the novel by Consolo, the painting serves as a point of reference and in fact, the ‘Ignoto Marinio’ resembles another important character in the novel; Intemodato. Both figures share the ironic and poignant smile and the profound look. Intemodato is seen as a typical Sicilian revolutionary who embraces the sea but at the same time is not psychologically unattached to the situations that happened on land. He is part of the revolution and integral part of the Sicilian history.
2.4 The Harbour as a Metaphorical Door Consolo and Izzo with their accounts of sailors and the life in Mediterranean harbours brought us to the interpretation of the harbour as a metaphorical door. As in the seminal work of Predrag Matvejevic ‘Breviario Mediterraneo’,31 the harbour is tied to the concept of a metaphorical door. In Latin both ‘porto’ and ‘porta’ have the same root and etymological derivation. A harbour in fact is a metaphorical and physical entryway to a country. In the Roman period, the god Portunos was the deity of the harbour who facilitated the marine commerce and the life in the port in general. The various deities related to the sea in the Roman 31 Predrag Matvejevic II Mediterraneo e I ‘Europa, lezioni al college de France e altri saggi (Garzanti elefanti:2008)
34
and Greek traditions are an indication of a deep relation between the figure of the harbour and the physical and geographical figure of the door or entryway. The door may have many different shapes and may divide different spaces but it always signifies a threshold from one point to another. In literature the harbour signifies a metaphorical door between fantasy and reality, history and fiction, love and hatred, war and peace, safety and danger. The image of the door is concretized through the various border controls, visas and migration issues and in this regard the entryway becomes a question of membership. A piece of paper in this case detennines the access through that doorway, but from a cultural and
identity point of view the Mediterranean threshold is overcome through the encounter with history and fiction. Thierry Fabre in his contribution to the book series ‘Rappresentare ii Mediterraneo’; 32 in relation to the Mediterranean identity he states; ” … Non si situa forse proprio nel punto di incorcio tra la storia vera e i testi letterari che danno origine all’immaginario Mediterraneo?”33 ‘ Isn’t perhaps situated exactly at the meeting point between the real stories and the literature texts that give birth to the Mediterranean imagination?’ Fabre is conscious of the fact that the discourse about the Mediterranean limits itself to a constructed imaginary, the poet or artist in general that enters this metaphorical door is expected to conceive the Mediterranean imaginary; blending reality with fiction. The door is not always a static figure but is sometimes blurred and does not 32 Jean Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, lo sguardo fiwicese (Mesogea: 2000) 33 Ibid (Mesogea: 2000) pp.25
35
clearly divide and distinguish. The Mediterranean itself is a region of unclear lines the fonnation of a port and of a nation itself is sometimes not that clear. In Matvejevic’s ‘Il Mediterraneao e l’Europa’34 literature blends with facts and culture so does the geography around the Mediterranean region: ‘Tra terra e mare, in molti luoghi vi sono dei limiti: un inizio o una
fine, l’immagine o 1 ‘idea che li uniscono o li separano. Numerosi sono
i tratti in cui la terra e il mare s’incontrano senza irregolarita ne rotture,
al punto che non si puo detenninare dove comincia uno o finisce
l’altro.Queste relazioni multiple e reversibili, danno fonna alla costa. ’35 
‘Between land and sea, there are limits in many places: a start or a
finish, the image or the idea that joins or separates them. The places
where sea meets land without any irregularities or breaks are
numerous, to the extent that it’s not possible to detennine where one
starts or the other finishes. These multiple and reversible links that
give shape to the coast.’ The coast in this sense is made up of a set of relations between figures and fonns that meet without touching each other, the door is not always present; it sometimes disappears to give room to imagination and the fonnation of literature.
34 Predrag Matvejevic Il Mediterraneo e !’Europa, Lezioni al College de France e Altri Saggi
(Garzanti elefanti: 2008)
35 Ibid (Garzanti: 2008) pp.53
36
The concept of literature allows the analysis of culture and the way it 1s
envisioned and spread through Mediterranean harbours. The fluctuations of varied thoughts that have shaped the Mediterranean imagery through its harbours have no ties with everyday life, if not by the transmission of culture and the means of popular culture that served as a point of anchorage and sometimes as a point of departure for the fonnation of a deeply rooted but also enriching and contested collective imagination.
37
3 The Port as a Cultural Lighthouse The harbour for many centuries has been an anchorage point and a safe place for sailors and travellers that navigate the Mediterranean. We perceive the safety of the harbour as something that is sometimes naturally part of its very makeup, as on such occasions where we encounter natural harbours. In other cases, to suit their needs, people have built around the shores and transfonned paii of the land into an artificial harbour which is able to welcome the foreigner and trade and at the same time to defend if needed the inland. Femand Braudel36 in his The Afediterranean and the Mediterranean World in thP AgP nf Philip TT <liscusse<l the importance of the Mediterranean shores for the traveller in an age when people were already able to explore the outer sea, but yet found it reassuring to travel in a sea where the shore was always in sight. The Mediterranean Sea has always instilled a sense of uncertainty in the traveller, because of its natural instability. Nevertheless, the fact that the shores and ts are always in the vicinity, the Mediterranean traveller is reassured that he can seek refuge whenever needed. The fascinating thing is that the ports in the age delineated by Femand Braudel were not only a means of safety but most of all of communication – a type of economic and cultural c01mnunication that went beyond 36 Fernand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 19 8 6)

38
the simple purpose of the port itself. The same simple modes of communications that Braudel describes may seem irrelevant when studying the Mediterranean history in its entirety, but we get to understand that they are actually the building blocks of the Mediterranean itself:
‘This is more that the picturesque sideshow of a highly coloured
history. It is the underlying reality. We are too inclined to pay attention only to the vital communications; they may be interrupted or
restored; all is not necessarily lost or saved. ‘ 37 The primordial modes of communication, the essential trade and the mixture of language and culture all have contributed to the creation of what we now sometimes romantically call the Mediterranean. The truth lies in the fact that
the harbour has always been prone to receiving and giving back; it has been a passing place of objects, customs and of words. We surely cannot deny the fact that trade has shifted not only by moving from different areas of interest but it also shifted into different forms changing the harbour’s initial function. This basic fonn of communication has contributed highly to the formation of a Mediterranean imaginary and a mixture of cultures that have left a deep resonance in language, literature and cultural expression as a whole.
37 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) pp.I 08
39
The risk and insecurity delivered by the sea have contributed to the
fonnation of various symbols that from their end contribute to the fonnation of an imaginary concerning the Mediterranean harbour. Amidst the uncertainties and hazards at sea, the light of the lighthouse that shows the surest path and warns the person travelling of the possible dangers, reassures the traveller while leading the way. The symbol of the lighthouse is tied to the representation of light and thus knowledge. Finding light in the middle of the sea gives the traveller the necessary means to have greater awareness of what is approaching. The geographical position and the architecture of the lighthouse are all an indication of their meaning beyond their primary objective. During the Roman period for example, the lighthouse was primarily an important source of safekeeping,38 but at the same time it represented a high expression of architectural and engineering knowledge. One example is the ancient roman lighthouse in Messina. Studies show that the architecture used was very functional, but at the same time it portrayed Neptune, thus mingling popular beliefs and superstitions. On the other hand, it was also a powerful way of delineating borders between Sicily and the Italian peninsula. Today the lighthouse in Messina has been replaced by fort San Remo and the architecture of the lighthouse has changed to a more functional one. Another powerful example is the ancient lighthouse in Alexandria, built on the island of Pharos where it stood alone as if wanting to replace the harbour itself. In Alexandria it is Poseidon who guards
the harbour, and the myth blends with the social and geographical importance of the lighthouse. Originally, the lighthouse in Alexandria was simply a landmark, but 38 Turismo La Coruna, Roman Lighthouses in the Mediterranean (2009) www.torredeherculesacoruna.com/index.php?s=79&l=en (accessed September, 2014)
40
eventually during the Roman Empire, it developed into a functional lighthouse. In the case of the old lighthouse built during the Roman period at the far eastern end of Spain, its dimension and position reflect the way Romans saw the world and how they believed Spain marked the far end of the world. What these lighthouses had in common was the fact that they were not just there to aid and support the traveller in his voyage but to define a border and to give spiritual assistance to the lost passenger. The symbol of the lighthouse is somehow deeply tied to a spiritual experience. In Messina where Neptune guarded the sea, and in many other places and different eras, the lighthouse was positioned in such way that it attracted a spiritual resonance and the light that emanated from the lighthouse may be compared to a spiritual guide. Matvejevic in his Breviario Mediterraneo39 compares lighthouses to sanctuaries and the lighthouse guardian to a spiritual hennit. He also adds that the crews responsible for the running of the lighthouse resemble a group of 1ponks, rather than sailors: ‘Gli equipaggi dei fari, cioe personale che somiglia piuttosto ai monaci dei conventi di un tempo che non ai marinai’ .40 ‘The crews of the lighthouses, that is staff that resembles more the convent’s monks of yore rather than the sailors’. The comparison is by no means striking, considering the mystical importance of the lighthouse. The lighthouse and its crew are seen and respected by the traveller, as they are their first encounter with land, safety and refuge. The link with spirituality is something that comes 39 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.55-56 40 Predrag Matvejevic Breviario Mediterraneo (Garzanti:2010) pp.56 41
naturally. The lighthouse crew for example is in some cases part of the ex-voto paintings found in the monasteries and convents. This illustrates the deep c01mection with the spiritual aspect. The question sometimes is to detennine whether the harbour and the lighthouse need to be two distinct features in the same space or whether they are part of the same geographical, social and cultural space. The answer may vary according to the way one perceives it. The lighthouse is the first encounter with land, but it is almost a feeling that precedes the real encounter with land, whilst the harbour is the first physical contact with land. The two elements may be taken into account separately, but for the purpose of this study they need to be taken in conjunction. The cultural value of both these elements goes beyond their physical value. In fact, both the lighthouse and the harbour share a common proximity to the sea, and receive cultural and social contributions from every traveller. The lighthouse and the harbour do not distinguish between different types of travellers -they accept everyone and their main gift for this act of pure love is the enrichment of culture, customs, language and food. The different elements intertwine and create a beautiful atmosphere that mixes sounds and tastes from various countries. This is not always distinguishable and it may not in all cases recreate the same atmosphere
in more than one country. What is sure is that the elements present in the harbours are of great relevance to what is portrayed on a higher artistic and cultural level. In this regard the harbour acts as a lighthouse for the country and sometimes for the region too, this time not to alann the traveller but to guide him spiritually and 42 artistically. The harbour was and still is a meeting place, where artists and thinkers stop and reflect. What comes out of these reflections sets deep roots in the cultural knit of the harbour and expands and grows until all the roots intertwine and create such a beautifully varied cultural atmosphere. Although the process may seem an easy and flowing one, we must not forget that the mixture of cultures and the setting up of such a variegated cultural atmosphere was not always flowing and peaceful. 3.1 Religious Cultural Mobility
The way the Mediterranean is geographically set up, contributed to an
expansion of religious pilgrimages that intertwined with marine commerce and
cultural richness. The image of the lighthouse and the harbour instil a sense of
spiritual refuge, and the large number of harbours and lighthouses in the
Mediterranean contribute to the mysticism of the region. Religious pilgrimage
throughout the Mediterranean is something that belongs to an older era and that
could have possibly started very early in the Greek empire, where Gods were
adored and ports and lighthouses had deep ties with different deities. As
Christianity started spreading in the Mediterranean, the Greek and Roman gods
were joined by saints and shrines for adoration.41 The coexistence of both pagan
and monotheistic religious expressions confinned a cultural motif related to
41 Peregring Horden, Nicholas Purcell The Corrupting sea, a study of the Mediterranean histmy (Blackwell publishing:2011)
43
divinity that has been a constant throughout Mediterranean history. In the Middle Ages the phenomena of the religious pilgrimage and the movement of saints’ relics gave to the Mediterranean voyage a different dimension. As noted in Borden and Purcell’s The Corrupting Sea, this age of pilgrimage and movement for religious purposes was brought about by a new discovery of sea routes in the Mediterranean and a different conception of religion as a c01mnodity. ‘Through the translation of his remains the saint himself, like the images of pre-Christian deities before him, in a very intense expression of the link between religion and redistribution, became a commodity’ .42 The redistribution of relics brought a new type of secular economy that involved bargaining and bartering. The movement of relics not only created a new wave of economic activity around the Mediterranean but also a movement of tales and accounts that pictured saints and voyages at sea, ‘Tales which echo real webs of communication, such as that of the arrival of St. Restitua from Carthage to Ischia’ .43 The stories seem to recall older stories from Greek culture, but are adapted to a newer setting.
The parallelism between good and bad, projected on the perilous voyage in
the Mediterranean, was always part of the account of a voyage itself, as we can
also recall in the various episodes of Ulysses’ journey. We are thus able to see that
in the voyages of pilgrims, the relationship between good and bad is often
projected onto the hard and extreme weather conditions in the Mediterranean.
42 Ibid pp.443
43 Ibid pp.443
44
Religious travellers had their own way of reading the map of the Mediterranean,
interpreting every danger and threat through religious imagery. From a cultural point of view, the accounts and echoes of religious travellers shaped the Mediterranean Sea itself and gave new life to the ports they anchored in. Apart from the movement of relics, another testimony of the great communication and cultural heritage -as we have previously mentioned- is the exvoto in the Mediterranean shores which gives witness to the cultural interaction and
customs based on faith. In many instances the objects collected for the ex-voto
have been taken up over time and placed in marine museums where cultural
interaction and exchange takes place. One example could be the ex-voto in
Marseille,44 where nowadays the objects collected are part of a collective cultural memory. In France, during the late seventies and the early eighties we have seen a great rediscovery of the ex-voto heritage that led to a deep cultural resonance in the area. The discovery of the ex-voto brought by a new inquiry of religious and harbour customs that were probably ignored previously. The paintings and objects dedicated to the saints and most of the time to the Virgin Mary represented the everyday life of sailors and travellers, the dangers at sea and most of all the miracles encountered during the arduous voyages. In the various exhibitions about ex-voto in France the concept of a Mediterranean ex-voto emerged and we are aware that at the time when the ex-voto was practiced in the majority of cases the 44 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 45
voyage routes were sole1m1ly around the Mediterranean and the fact that marine exhibitions concerning the ex-voto claim a Mediterranean heritage calls for a collective cultural expe1ience. It is difficult though to distinguish between a
personal encounter with the harbour and a Mediterranean experience; one may
intertwine with the other. In this case, the Mediterranean reference is imposed and not implied, and one might therefore wonder if there are elements that are c01mnon in the region and thus justify the use of the word Mediterranean. In the case of the ex-voto, it has been noted that certain elements are common to the whole region.
It is interesting to note the areas of interest and the social groups to whom
the ex-voto applies. This may give a clearer idea of the criteria and the cultural
sphere that surrounded the practice of the ex-voto. In the majority of cases the exvoto represented the medium bourgeoisie and the lower classes, the setting mostly represented small nuclear families. In most of the ex-voto paintings, one can see that the terrestrial elements intertwine with celestial elements ‘Dans sa structure, un ex-voto presente deux espaces, celeste et terrestre’ .45 The anthropological and cultural importance of the ex-voto emerges through the various figures that appear especially in the paintings dedicated to the saints and the Virgin Mary. These figures have a particular placement in these paintings that reveals a deep connection with the cult of miracles and devotion.
In Malta, as in France, the ex-voto was a widespread custom that left a
great cultural heritage. The paintings and objects donated to the ex-voto, especially 45 Jacques Bouillon ‘Ex-voto du terroir marsellais’ Revue d’histoire modern et contemporaine (1954) pp.342-344 46
in connection to the sea, reveal a number of historical events and geographical
catastrophes that are tied with the Mediterranean region. The fact that the sea is
unpredictable makes the practice of the ex-voto much more relevant in an era
where the only means of transportation in the Mediterranean was by ways of sea. In the Maltese language there is a saying ‘il-bahar iaqqu ratba u rasu iebsa ‘ which literally translates to ‘the sea has a soft stomach but it is hard headed’. This saying is very significant as it shows the profound awareness of the Maltese community of the dangers at sea. The sea is unpredictable and therefore only through divine intercession can the traveller find peace and courage to overcome any dangerous situation. The different types of paintings that were donated portray different types of vessels and so indicate a precise period in history. At the Notre Dame de la Garde in Marseille, one finds a number of models of different vessels from various historical periods. We also encounter very recent models of boats. This confirms that in a way the ex-voto is still present nowadays. Even in Malta, the practice of the ex-voto is still relatively present, although one may notice that the advance in technology and the new fonns of transport through the Mediterranean aided the voyage itself and therefore diminished the threats and deaths at sea. The types of vessels used in the paintings also shows the different modes of economic trading voyages in the Mediterranean. For example, in Malta during the nineteenth century, a great number of merchants were travellmg across the Mediterranean. This resulted in a number of ex-voto paintings that pictured merchants’ vessels and one could be made aware of their provenance. Various details in the ex-voto 47
paintings show many important aspects of the Mediterranean history as a whole
and of the connectivity in the region that went on building through time.
One interesting fact common to almost all the ex-voto paintings is the
acronyms V.F.G.A (votum facit et gratiam accepit) and sometimes P.G.R (Per
Grazia Ricevuta) that categorizes certain paintings into the ex-voto sphere. The
acronyms literally mean that we made a vow and we received grace and P.G.R
stands for the grace received. The acronyms are in Latin, for a long period of time which was the official language of Christianity. These acronyms, which may have indicated the tie of high literature -through the knowledge of Latin- and popular culture -through the concept of the ex-voto, usually associated to a medium to lower class- demonstrate that the use of language may tie the various social classes. Although everyone understood the acronyms, it doesn’t mean that Latin was fully understood amongst sailors and merchants of the sea. Language was a barrier to merchants, traders and seamen most of the time. The Mediterranean has a variety of languages coexist in the region; Semitic languages at its south and Romance languages at its north. The lines of intersection and influence of languages are not at all clear and the geography of the Mediterranean region forced its people to move and shift from one place to another for commerce or for other reasons which brought by a deep need for modes of communication.
48
3.2 The Lingua Franca Mediterranea as a Mode of Communication
The communication barrier between people in the Mediterranean coupled
with the profound need for interaction brought by a deep need of a common
language or at least common signals which would be understood by everyone. In
the case of the ex-voto, language or at least a reference made to a certain language, gives the possibility for people from different countries to understand the underlying message. In the Mediterranean harbours where interaction between people from different lands was the order of the day, the need for common signals and language was always deeply felt. Languages in the Mediterranean region contain linguistic elements that throughout history have been absorbed from other languages. In the Mediterranean region especially during the fifteenth century, the great need for communication resulted in the creation of a so-called Lingua fiw1ca, a spoken language that allowed people to communicate more freely within Mediterranean ports. One such language was known as ‘Sabir’, with words mainly from Italian and Spanish, but also words from Arabic and Greek. The interesting fact about Sabir was that the amount of words coming from different languages around the Mediterranean was an indication of the type of c01mnerce that was taking place at the time. Therefore, if at a given moment in time the amount of words from the Italian language was higher than that from the Spanish language, it meant that commerce originating and involving from Italy predominated. As Eva Martinez Diaz explains in her study about the Lingua ji-anca Mediterranea:
49
‘They created a new language from a mixture whose lexical and
morphological base – the base of pidgin – is the Romance component,
exactly the language of the most powerful group in these relations and
which varies according to historical period. ’46 During the 16th Century, for example, the Lingua franca Mediterranea acquired more Spanish vocabulary, due to certain historical events that shifted maritime commerce. This was also an indication of certain political events that shaped Mediterranean history. When a country invaded or colonialized another, as happened in Algeria after the French colonization, linguistic repercussions were observed. This mostly affected everyday language communication, especially with the simpler and more functional mixture of words and phrases from different languages in ports and the areas around them rather than at a political level. In Mediterranean ports, the need among sea people and traders to communicatee led to the creation of a variety like Sabir. Sabir comes from the Spanish word saber (to know), although, it is mostly noticeable that Italian fonned it in its prevalence.47 Sabir is known to be a pidgin language. A pidgin is a language used between two or more groups of people that 46 Eva Martinez Diaz ‘An approach to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean’ Quaderns de la Mediteranea, universidad de Barcelona pp: 224
47 Riccardi Contini, ‘Lingua franca in the Mediterranean by John Wansbrough’ Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Litermy Innovation in Modern Arabic Literature. Schools and Journals. Vol. 18 (2000) (pp. 245-247)
50
speak a different language but need to have a business relation, and so, need to find a common language or mode of communication. The word ‘pidgin’ is said to come from the Chinese pronunciation of the word ‘business’. The Lingua fi’anca
Mediterranea was a language that started fonning in the Mediterranean throughout the 15th century and continued to shape and change itself depending on where the political and commercial hub lay; Sabir, specifically as an offshoot of the lingua fiw1ca mediterranea, fonned after the 17th century. The first time that reference was made to sabir was in 1852, in the newspaper ‘L ‘Algerien’ in an article entitled ‘la langue sabir. Apart from a few references made to the language, it is quite rare to find sabir in writing because it was mostly used for colloquial purposes, but in some cases it may be found in marine records. When it was actually written down, the lingua franca mediterranea used the Latin alphabet, and the sentence structure and grammar were very straightforward. In Sabir the verb was always in the infinitive, as, for example, in ‘Quand moi gagner drahem, moi achetir moukere’48, that means ‘when I will have enough money, I will buy a wife’. The use of the infinitive indicated a less complex grammar that made it more functional to the user, as it was a secondary language mostly used for commerce. Although Sabir was in most cases referred to as a variety of the lingua franca mediterranea, we perceive that in the popular culture sphere the word Sabir is mostly used to refer to the common and functional language used in MeditelTanean harbours for communication. It is deceiving in fact, because the 48 Guido Cifoletti ‘Aggiomamenti sulla lingua franca Mediterranea’ Universita di Udine pp: 146
51
lingua fi’anca mediterranea, is the appropriate reference that needs to be made
when talking in general about the language used in harbours around the
Mediterranean. On the other hand, if we want to refer to Sabir we are reducing the
lingua fi’anca mediterranea to a definite period of time and almost a defined
territory association. Nevertheless, both Sabir and lingua fiw1ca mediterranea are two different words that express almost the same thing, it is thus important to establish the minimal difference between the two tenns. In arguing that the lingua franca mediterranea refers to a more general language used in the Mediterranean harbours during the Middle Ages and that went on changing and fonning and changing-assuming different fonns according to the harbour and place where it was spoken- we are looking at the language in a broader way. It is undeniable though that Sabir as a reference to a specific language that fonned in Algeria during the 17th century, is most of the time more appropriate to address specific arguments, especially when it comes to popular culture expedients. Popular culture and literature have expressed their interest in the language through expressions such as poems and songs recalling Sabir as a language that managed to mingle more words of different derivation into single cultural spaces. Nowadays, Sabir is no longer used; in fact we notice that English and Chinese are developing into new pidgin languages, understood almost by everyone, especially when it comes to trade and busmess.
In the Mediterranean we have encountered the rediscovery of Sabir in
culture as a language that has a deep cultural value for Mediterranean countries as 52 a whole. One of the examples of the presence of Sabir in cultural expedients is the famous play by Moliere Le bourgeois gentilhomme49 that was represented for the first time in 1967 at the court of Louis XIV. The story was a satiric expression of the life at court, Moliere was well aware of the life at court and he wanted to show that there was no difference between royals and nonnal people, especially with regards to emotions. Moliere associates the Sabir to the foreign Turks that by means of Sabir they managed to communicate:
‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir;
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir. ‘ 50
The use of Sabir for Moliere indicated a common language understood both by
French and Turks in this case. The fact that Moliere used Sabir, it meant that
gradually the resonance of Sabir could reach out to a different audience, than it’s
main purpose. In this case the meeting place as the harbour was not present but we may perceive that the mixture of cultures and the need for communication led to the use of Sabir as the common language. 49 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/l 3 l .pdf
50 Moliere, le bourgoise gentilhomme www.writingshome.com/ebook _files/13 l.pdf pp.143
53
Coming to the present day, it is difficult to say that Sabir or the lingua
franca mediterranea own a particular important space in the cultural sphere or in the language per se. We are mostly sure that in the Mediterranean harbours Sabir has no relevance anymore, nevertheless, we find the use of Sabir in popular culture. One example is the aiiist Stefano Saletti,51 who in his songs uses Sabir. Its use was obviously intentional. Saletti looked at the new uprisings in the North African countries and he could recall the same feelings, faces and atmosphere that southern European countries went through thirty years prior. With this in mind, he decided to use a language that had co1mnon elements to all Mediterranean languages, and so he chose Sabir. His albums are inspired by the notion of music and culture as a tie to the whole Mediterranean, being conscious on the other hand of the numerous contradictions and differences in the Mediterranean region. The CD Saletti and the Piccola banda ikona explain what Sabir is and why they chose this language to communicate a c01mnon message through the music: ‘Once upon a time there was a tongue shared by the peoples of the Mediterranean. This was Sabir, a lingua franca which sailors, pirates,
fishennen, merchants, ship-owners used in the ports to communicate
with each other. From Genoa to Tangiers, from Salonika to Istanbul,
from Marseilles to Algiers, from Valencia to Palenno, until the early
decades of the twentieth century this kind of sea-faring “Esperanto”
developed little by little availing of tenns from Spanish, Italian,
51 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
54
French and Arabic. We like this language. We like to mix sounds and
words. We play Sabir. We sing Sabir.’ 52 The importance of Sabir for Saletti shows that the harbour’s cultural value has been transmitted through time. Does the use of Sabir by Saletti indicate a recreation of a language that was used in the harbour as a functional and common means of communication or does it have the pretext to artificially recreate a common language? It is difficult to understand the importance and relevance an old pidgin language used for a specific purpose might hold today. Nevertheless, the use of this specific language in the music of Saletti reveals a profound search for common cultural traits in the Mediterranean region, that in this case aim to opt for cultural and educational approach to unite a region that is fractured in its own
basis. Saletti refers to Sabir as resembling Esperanto; a failed attempt to
linguistically unite a region that cannot be united. Although we may find the same concept in Esperanto and Sabir, we are aware that they differ in the way they came to be. Esperanto was artificially constructed, whereas, Sabir was born and evolved in an almost natural way by a need that went beyond the actual artifice. This is probably the reason why Sabir and the lingua franca mediterranea lasted for a long period of time, while Esperanto was at its birth a failed attempt to create a language for a detennined sector in society. It is a fact that the main difference between the two languages is that one aimed to create a broader understanding based on a functional everyday life need, whereas the other aimed to create a 52 Stefano Saletti www.stefanosaletti.it/schede/ikonaeng.htm (accessed July, 2014)
55
language understood by few. In Saletti’s and Moliere’s works, we perceive the Mediterranean harbour as a point of intersection of cultures and ways of living that left a spill-over of cultural traits in the abovementioned artistic works and in many other works by various authors around the Mediterranean region. It is important to notice that the harbour in the expression of the ex-voto, Sabir, lingua franca mediterranea and various literal and artistic expressions, served almost as a lighthouse, where culture was projected and created, and recreated and changed to fit the ever changing needs of the Mediterranean differing cultures. In Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins Perdus, the language used in the harbour is not mentioned often, although he refers to language
as a barrier that finds its purpose in the basic everyday needs. Jean-Claude Izzo
mentions an important point on language in Les Marins Perdus as he delves in the way the word ‘Mediterranean’ is seen in different languages across the region: ‘Il Mediterraneo e di genere neutro nelle lingue slave e latine. E in
maschile in italiano. Femminile in francese. Maschile e femminile in
spagnolo, dipende. Ha due nomi maschili in arabo. E il greco, nelle
sue molteplici definizioni, gli concede tutti I generi. ‘ 53
‘The Mediterranean is neutral in the Slavonic languages, and in Latin.
It’s masculine in Italian. Feminine in French. Sometimes masculine,
sometimes feminine in Spanish. It has two masculine names in Arabic.
53 Jean-Claude IzzoMarinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010) pp.237
56
And Greek has many names for it, in different genders.’ Jean-Claude Izzo wants to prove that the word ‘Mediterranean’ in language is a sufficient proof of how people around the shores view the region. The gender of the word Mediterranean does in fact show that the languages in the region have
developed their own way of understanding and perceiving the region. Language as we have seen has deep ties to how popular culture and ideas have evolved and
developed. Sabir in its essence has proved that although the region has a myriad of contradictions and differing cultures, the harbour and everyday needs managed to combine the different languages into one. At the same time it is undeniable that the differences in the Mediterranean region make the region itself not only vast but also wonderful and enticing to the traveller and the artist. Literature and culture have fonned and mingled together, yet each maintained its distinct features at the the Mediterranean harbours; the place of various particular encounters. Jean Claude Izzo, Salletti and Moliere all managed to create a powerful work of art that has deep ties to the culture created and recreated over time in the Mediterranean harbours. Sabir and the ex-voto are only two examples of how harbours throughout
the Mediterranean have been a point of anchorage but also a locus of
Mediterranean cultural development. Harbours have been able to unite, divide and create such a diverse and yet common culture.
57
4 The Mediterranean Imaginary of Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo Inspired by the Port The Mediterranean as a discourse has been interpreted and reinterpreted, and idealized and mystified by a myriad of authors, thinkers and artists. In this modem era where globalization of thought is the nonn, the Mediterranean discourse is by far a difficult expression that finds obstacles in the concretization of its own thought. Nevertheless, today the Mediterranean is still capable of producing new artists and new expressions by which the discourse gets richer and deeper. The Mediterranean, as its name suggests, is a sea that is in between two lands, and as Franco Cassano 54 states, has never had the ambition to limit itself to only one of its shores. The Metlitenanean was fm a periotl of time consecutively and simultaneously Arab, Roman and/or Greek; it was everything and nothing at the same time. The Mediterranean never aspired to have a specific identity, and its strength lies in its conflicting identity; it embraces multiple languages and cultures in one sea. Franco Cassano in his L ‘alternativa mediterranea states that borders are always ahead of centres, ‘Il confine e sempre piu avanti di ogni centro’55, and this concept is very relevant when we think about the significance of the harbour, as a place at the border of the country and yet the centre of every interaction.
Cassano goes on explaining how the centre celebrates identity, whereas the border is always facing contradiction, war and suffering. The border cannot deny the suffering by which the conflicting and inhomogeneous Mediterranean identity has 54 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) 55 Franco Cassano, Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.80
58
been built upon. The border is the true expression of the Mediterranean and it is
undeniable here that the most important interactions and historical events in the
region have taken place.
The border is an important concept in the study of the Mediterranean
itself, and as already mentioned, the majority of intersection and cultural
exchanges have taken place in the harbours, which are the borders of a country yet the centre of every interaction. For the concept of a ‘Mediterranean identity’ to arise, the harbour has been a pivotal place economic and religious interactions
which consequently left an undeniable cultural baggage whose strong presence
allowed the Mediterranean shores to benefit from an enriching cultural melange.
Being a sea of proximity, the Mediterranean has always been prone to receive the
‘other’ with all its cultural baggage, and therefore the concept of fusion and
amalgamation of different aspects of every country has always contributed to the
region’s culture. Accounts about the Mediterranean and those set in it have always put at their centre the concept of ‘differences’ and the ‘other’ in contraposition to the conflicts found in the harbours and in its centres. Nevertheless, without expecting the ends to meet to a degree of totality, the Mediterranean has been able to create places where ends do not merely meet but coexist. The coexistence of different races, cultures and languages has been the founding stone of the region.
As Cassano states, an identity that claims to be pure is an identity that is destined
to fail because it is in the essence of a culture that it repels the ‘other’, and
therefore sees the answer to every problem in the elimination of the ‘other’. The
59
Mediterranean, on the other hand has embraced ‘the other’ or on occasion, ‘other’ has forcedly penetrated the Mediterranean, giving birth to a region of different cultures based on a coexistence which is sometimes peaceful but often hard. The Mediterranean nowadays has overcome the complex of Olientalism and moved forward from a vision of an exotic south or border; ‘non e piu una frontiera o una barriera tra il nord e il sud, o tra l’ est e l’ ovest, ma e piuttosto un luogo di incontli e correnti … di transiti continui’ .56 ‘it is not a border or bamer between North and South, or East and West anymore, but it is rather a place of encounters and trends of continuous transits’. The Mediterranean has become a region of transit and a meeting place.
Upon travelling across the Mediterranean, an important thing which makes
itself evident is the imaginary that keeps on building through the interaction
between authors and thinkers, especially through their works that focus on the
importance of stating a discourse about the Mediterranean.
4.1 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Izzo and Consolo
‘Il Mediterraneo none una semplice realta geografica, ma un temtorio
simbolico, un luogo sovraccalico di rappresentazioni. ’57
56 Franco Cassano,Danilo Zolo L ‘alternativa mediterranea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 2007) pp.92 57Jean-Claude Izzo,Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese
(Mesogea: 2000) pp.7
60
‘The Mediterranean is not a simple geographical reality, but a
symbolic territory, a place overloaded with representations.’
The Mediterranean is a region full of symbolism and representationswhich
would not exist if it were not supp01ied by the literature and culture that has
fonned on and around its shores. The Mediterranean as a region of imaginaries
built on the integration of different voices and stories has produced a number of
authors and thinkers that left a cultural and artistic patrimony to the discourse
about the Mediterranean. We have already seen how the harbour transmits a sense of insecurity and plays a role of threshold which is testified through the works of Izzo and Consolo. Both authors have not only shown the importance of the harbour but have also contributed arduously to the fonnation of a Mediterranean imaginary. The word imaginary, comprehends a number of images, figures and fonns that are created by the observers to define something -not solemnly by the mere reflection of facts and historical events, but by a personal evaluation- that sometimes goes beyond reality. In this sense, it is undeniable that the Mediterranean has gathered a number of observers who have been able to translate facts and create figures and images that represent a collective in a singular imagination. Consolo and Izzo have transfonned their personal encounter with the Mediterranean into a powerful imaginary.
Jean-Claude Izzo was born and raised in Marseille in a family of Italian
immigrants. His background and geographical position highly influenced his
61
writing. Both Izzo and Consolo shared a deep love for their country of origin
especially for the microcosm surrounding them. Vincenzo Consolo wrote about
his beloved Sicily, while Izzo always mentions Marseille. Both authors transpose
the love for the microcosm into a broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole.
Jean Claude Izzo’s Mediterranean is based on a passionate encounter with the
region and states that his Mediterranean differs from the one found at travel
agencies, where beauty and pleasure are easily found.
‘Cio che avevo scoperto non era il Mediterraneo preconfezionato che
ci vendono i mercanti di viaggi e di sogni facili. Che era propio un
piacere possibile quello che questo mare offriva.’ 58
‘I had discovered a Mediterranean beyond the pre-packaged one
usually sold and publicised by Merchants, as an easy dream. The
Mediterranean offered an achievable pleasure.’
The Mediterranean hides its beauty only to reveal it to anyone who
wants to see it. The Mediterranean for Izzo is a mixture of tragedy and pleasure,
and one element cannot exist without the other. This image of beauty and
happiness shared with tragedy and war is a recurring one in the study of the
Mediterranean. Consolo’s writing is based on the concept of suffering. He
pictures human grief and misery as an integral part of the Mediterranean
58 Jean-Claude Izzo, Thierry Fabre Rappresentare il Mediterraneo, Lo sguardo francese (Mesogea:
2000) pp.17
62
imaginary and he feels that poetry and literature have the responsibility to transmit the human condition. Izzo in his writings not only shows that the Mediterranean imaginary is made up of tragedy, suffering and war but also shows that there is hope in the discourse about the Mediterranean itself. For Izzo, the Mediterranean is part of his future, part of his destiny, embodied in the geography of the region and in the tales and accounts that inhabit every comer of the region. Through his beloved Marseille, Izzo manages to look at the Mediterranean and thus find himself.
The word ‘imaginary’ in the academic sphere is tied to a concept used
for the definition of spaces, a definition that goes beyond the way things seem
externally, a definition that puts much more faith in how an author, thinker or
artist expresses and describes the space. In the case of the Mediterranean, since
the region is not an officially recognized political entity, identity is based on
interpretation more than anywhere else and the concept of an imaginary proves
that there are paths that still lead to thought about the Mediterranean. With this in mind, one cam1ot deny the fact that in the political or social sphere, the concept of Medite1Tanean is still being mentioned; however, one could argue that the Mediterranean that is being mentioned in a political and social sphere is somehow a constructed ‘Mediterranean’. The Mediterranean’s relevance nowadays is found in the hearth of the author and artist that from Tangiers or from Marseille is able to write about a sea that has thought him to be mobile, to travel not only physically but mentally and emotionally from one shore to another. Jean-Claude Izzo’s troubled identity gives us a hint of the way in which the Mediterranean is 63
perceived as a region and the way in which the personal ‘imaginary’ for Izzo was
fonned. Izzo himself was from a family of mixed origins and was raised in a
constant state of travel. Izzo found his Mediterranean identity in the imaginary
other authors had created but also found his roots in the very absence of more
organic roots. Every story and every country may be part of his own identity, and
so, the Mediterranean has the ability to preserve in the depths of its sea the stories and feelings collected from every shore and give a curious traveller the
opportunity to retrieve these treasures and make them his own.
The historical approach to the Mediterranean has been based on a
comparison between south and north, between the Mediterranean and Europe, and it usually focused much more on the contrasting elements than on its conjunctions and similarities. Braudel59 saw the Mediterranean as a static and unchanging region. Today, modem thought has led to a new perception of the Mediterranean, focusing rather on the points of conjunction than on the differences and contrasting elements, yet accepting the fact that the Mediterranean is diverse in its essence. In a paper by Miriam Cooke about the Mediterranean entitled Mediterranean thinking: from Netizen to Metizen60
, she delves into the importance of the juxtaposition between the liquidity of the sea and the immobility of the land in the rethinking process of the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean imaginary, the sea serves as a mirror and as a fluid that is able to connect and remain welldefined.
It is able to give a sense of time that is very different from the one on
59 Femand Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Fontana press: 1986) 60 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
64
land. As we perceive in Jean-Claude Izzo, time is something that is completely
lost at the border between sea and land and especially in contact with the sea.
Sailors in Les Marins Perdus61 realize the concept of time only when they live in
the harbor and in other words, the sea has been able to preserve the sailor’s spirit in the illusion that time on land was as static as it was at sea. In the study about the Mediterranean region, the sea plays a fundamental role that must not be underestimated. Jean-Claude Izzo and Vincenzo Consolo both refer extensively to the figure of the sea when addressing the Mediterranean imaginary. When pondering on the Mediterranean, Izzo always places himself facing the sea, embracing the liquidity of this region, whereas in his stories, Consolo always uses the sea as the main mode of transportation and giving it a mystical attribute.
The Mediterranean has a different meaning for the two authors, because
it is perceived from two different places and two different conceptions of the
Mediterranean arise. In much of Consolo’ s writing, the Mediterranean is seen
through the image of Odysseus which is an image that holds a special meaning for Consolo and to which he feels deeply tied. For Consolo, The Odyssey is a story
that has no specific ending and this is done on purpose because it is directly tied to the future. The door to the future was kept open with the specific purpose of
letting the figure of Odysseus trespass time. The importance of Ulysses in
Consolo’s discourse extends to a deep and personal search for identity and it is
identity itself and the search for knowledge that led Ulysses to embark on a
61 Jean-Claude Izzo Marinai Perduti (Tascabili e/o: 2010)
65
voyage around the Mediterranean region and afterwards to return to Ithaca. Like
Izzo, Consolo finds the essence of a Mediterranean imaginary in the act of
travelling and sometimes wandering from coast to coast, from harbour to harbour, somehow like a modem Ulysses that aims to find himself and find knowledge through the act of travelling and meandering. Many authors that have focused their attention on the figure of Ulysses have focused on Ulysses’ return to Ithaca in particular and the search for a Mediterranean identity through this return.
Consolo, however, mainly uses the metaphor of travel and wandering, and he
manages to tie them to the question of a Mediterranean imaginary that is being
built upon the various images that the author is faced with through his voyage. For Consolo the voyage and the constant search for knowledge are the founding
stones of a Mediterranean imaginary. This urge to push further and thus reach a
greater level of knowledge has driven the Mediterranean people to practice
violence, and therefore Consolo believes that violence tied to the expression of a
deep search for knowledge is what has constituted the Mediterranean region. In
L ‘Olivo e L ‘Olivastro 62
, Vincenzo Consolo uses Ulysses’ voyage as a metaphor of his own voyage and his personal relation with Sicily; being his homeland it holds
a special place for Consolo especially in his writings. Constant change in the
modern concept of a Mediterranean has left a deep impact on the Mediterranean
imaginary. The wandering Ulysses returns to a changed and metamorphosed
Ithaca, which is a recurring image in the Mediterranean. Consolo finds his home
62 Norma Bouchard, Massimo Lollini, ed, Reading and Writing the Mediterranean, Essays by Vincenzo Consolo (University of Toronto Press, 2006)
66 island ‘Sicily’ deeply changed by industrialization and although it may have
maintained features that recall the past, it has changed greatly. Images of the
harbour and of the Mediterranean itself have deeply changed. Change may be
positive, negative or may hold a nostalgic tone, although change is always a
positive factor that contributes to the fonnation of an ‘imaginary’. The way
Ulysses and authors such as Consolo and Izzo have wandered and fought their
battles in the Mediterranean has contributed to the change that we now perceive in the region. Through the voyage of Ulysses, Consolo gives testimony of the
Mediterranean violence and change to the rest of the world. For Consolo the
imaginary created around the Mediterranean is a mixture of his own reality such
as a modem Sicily devastated by industrialization and modernization, and the
recurring image of Ulysses. In fl Sorriso dell ‘Ignoto Marinaio, Consolo focuses
on the microcosm of Sicily as a metaphor of the larger Mediterranean. His
imaginary is characterized by the concept of conflict – a conflict that keeps on
repeating itself in the Mediterranean and is somehow tied to a general conception of the Mediterranean. The harbour acquires an important space in the novel, being the hub of the whole story. The violence mentioned in the novel is a projection of violence in view of an attempt at unifying two different spheres, in this case the unification of Italy, but in a broader sense the possible unification of a Mediterranean. The attempt is not only a failure but results in a continuous war to establish a dominant culture rather than a possible melange of cultures that manage to keep their personal identities.
67
Izzo on the other hand wrote about the Mediterranean imaginary from
the point of view of sailors, who construct a Mediterranean imaginary based on
the concept of a difficult intercultural relationship and a strange bond with the
Mediterranean harbour. In Les Marins Perdus, the microcosm of Marseille
managed to represent the macrocosm of the Mediterranean, and the figures of the sailors represents a modem Ulysses, with the aim of bringing about a
Mediterranean imaginary that mingled old and traditional conceptions of the
region with new and modem ideas. Jean Claude Izzo’s sailors had different ways
of perceiving the Mediterranean, but they had a similar way of seeing and
identifying the ‘sea’. Izzo’s protagonist, much like Consolo’s protagonist,
develops an interesting habit of collecting old Mediterranean maps. For the sailor, the collection of maps represents in a certain way the concretization of a
Mediterranean and the unification of the geographical conception of the region.
The act of collecting may be considered as an attempt at identifying something
that is common, something that is part of a collective memory.
The works of Consolo and Izzo are the literal expressions of a
Mediterranean imaginary, based on their personal encounter with the region and
on their individual research on the subject. The way in which literal texts shape
our conception and ideas with their powerful imagery proves that the personal
encounter becomes a collective encounter in the translation of facts that each
author perfonns in his writings. However, what is most fascinating is the meeting
of ideas brought about through writing which also share elements with popular
68
culture. In essence, popular culture manages to reach a higher audience but it
often takes inspiration directly from literature and its various expressions. In the
sphere of popular culture one may see that the concept of adve1iising and of
mixing various means of communication to reach a specific goal come into action. 
Popular culture comp1ises various levels of cultural and artistic expression, and is therefore well placed to reach a larger audience and to imprint in the audience
various powerful images related to the subject chosen. In this case, the
Mediterranean has collected a large amount of popular culture expressions that
managed to create a knit of ideas and interpretations that succeed in intertwining and creating ideas through the use of old traditions and seminal literal texts.
4.2 The Mediterranean Imaginary in Popular Culture
The way in which the Mediterranean has been projected in the sphere of
popular culture owes a lot to the dichotomy between sea and land, between a fixed object and a fluid matter. The fascination around the two contrasting elements managed to create an even more fascinating expression of popular culture, thus an idea about the region that is based on the way in which Mediterranean people view the sea and view the stable and immobile element of land. Moreover, the Mediterranean popular culture focuses a lot on the element of the harbour, a place where the two elements of water and land manage to intertwine, meet, discuss ideas and at times fight over who dominates. The conflict between the two elements, projected in the geographical distribution of the region, has deep 69 resonance in the emotional encounter with the region. Thus, the authors, artists and travellers are emotionally part of this dichotomy that is consequently reflected in their artistic expressions.
To talk about the Mediterranean nowadays is to reinvent the idea behind
the region in an innovative and appealing way. Culture and literature are new
means by which we re-conceptualize the region. The Medite1Tanean has been
compared to the Internet, because it is a place where near and far are not too well defined, where space is something fluid and where infonnation and culture are transmitted through a network of connections. In her study, Miriam Cooke63 notes how even the tenninology used on the Internet derives from marine tenninology.
One example could be the ‘port’ or ‘portal’. In relation to the web, it is defined as
a place of entry and usually signifies the first place that people see when entering
the web. Although virtually, the concept of harbour remains the first and most
relevant encounter a person makes when approaching a country or ‘page’ on the
internet. Although air transportation has gained a great deal of importance,
shipping networks used for merchandise are common and still very much in use.
The parallelism between the Mediterranean and the Internet opens a new way of
conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a physical and cybernetic space. Miriam
Cooke explains how the Mediterranean itself, just like the Internet, changes the
traditional concept of core and periphery: 63 Miriam Cooke ‘Mediterranean thinking: From Netizen to Medizen’ Geographical review, vol 89 pp.290-300
70
‘The islands that are geographically centered in the Mediterranean are
rarely centers of power; rather, they are crossroads, sometimes sleepy
but sometimes also dangerous places of mixing, where power is most
visibly contested and where difficult choices must be made.’ 64
The way in which the Mediterranean is seen geographically most of the
time does not appear to be consistent with the actual function and thought of the
place. As in the case of the islands in the Mediterranean, their main function lies
in the fact that they are crossroads rather than real centres. Usually, the
geographical centre of a country is the actual political, social and economic
centre, however, in the Mediterranean, the centre is where ideas are fonned, and
this usually lies in the harbours and in the cities located in close proximity to the
sea. The centre and marginality of a place according to Cooke depends on the
position of the viewer. Therefore, the explained and conceptualized Mediterranean may have different centres and borders depending on who is writing about it. The function of popular culture is to somehow give a view on where the centre is and where the margins lie.
When discussing the Mediterranean in advertisements and in the media
m general, there is a tendency to start from the past, from a presumed
Mediterranean origin that seems to tie the whole region. In this assumption, there is no truth but just a commercial way of proposing the historical elements that 64 Ibid pp.296 71
unite the region, therefore making it appealing at a touristic level. The audience at times does not have a precise idea of the differing elements and cultures residing in the region. To make it more appealing and coherent, especially in advertising, culture seems to be portrayed as a feature that holds similar elements that recur throughout the region. Even tastes and sometimes sounds seem to be homogenized tlu·oughout the region. The French documentary film entitled Mediteranee Notre Mer a Taus produced by Yan Arthus-Bertrand for France 2, aims to give an overview of the Mediterranean by focusing not just on the common features, but most of all on the fascination of the differences. The
documentary film traces how the Mediterranean has transfonned and shifted over time and it aims to show the deep cultural heritage it left in Europe. Rather than an advertisement or promotional video, this is an educational movie that rotates around the Mediterranean to explain each and every place while delineating its features and importance. The interesting fact about the movie is that it is filmed from above, giving almost an overview of the region, and that it talks about a Mediterranean future that ultimately lies in a supposed c01mnon past. When advertising a harbour in the Mediterranean, most of the short clips focus on the multiculturalism of the harbour and the projection of the place within a broader Mediterranean vision.
72
A particular advertising video, promoting Tangier65 as a harbour city
that looks onto the Mediterranean but remains predominantly African, focuses on the emotions that it can deliver and on the particular features that can attract the tourist such as traditional food and music. In everyday life, certain music and
traditional food would have probably disappeared, but in the projection of a place that needs to attract the tourist, the sensational aspect prevails and the tradition needs to be prioritized. In all the movies concerning advertisement of the Mediterranean harbours, what prevails is the conception of the harbours as
crossroads, as places where cultures meet, and obviously leave deep cultural
heritage. The movement of people in these short clips is shown as a movement
that has brought richness and cultural heritage to the country, ignoring the
ongoing debates about migration. These clips tend to ignore the ongoing problems in the Mediterranean and this is obviously done to increase tourism and project a nicer image of the region, succeeding in having a positive impact on the mind of the viewer.
Another peculiarity that is noticeable both in the clips about the
Mediterranean harbours and in many movies and stories is a concept of time
which is very different from reality. In short clips, such as the one portraying
Tangiers or the one promoting Valletta, it is noticeable that time slows down. In
the transposition of the novel Les Marins Perdus into a movie66, the concept of
65 Fabounab,Tangiers, port of Aji-ica and the Mediterranean (uploaded May, 2010) www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_IJ3zmxC6g (accessed July, 2014)
66 Les Marins Perdus, Claire Devers (2003)
73 time is a fundamental element, because it drastically slows down. The first scene opens up with the overview of the Aldebaran, the ship on which the story unfolds.
This scene is a very long scene that gives the viewer a hint of approaching trouble, from sea to land. It achieves this in a very calm and slow way. Throughout the movie the sense of time being slower than usual is something that finds its apex in the last minutes of the movie when all the tragedies unfold. The way in which the Mediterranean is described in short clips and in this movie shows a common perception of the Mediterranean people as a people who enjoy life at a slower rhytlnn, although in certain cases it might be true that this assumption lacks accuracy. Although it is undeniable that the juxtaposition between land and sea which we especially perceive in the harbour gives a sense of time as a rather fictitious concept, one may recall the Odyssey, where the voyage in the Mediterranean took an unusually long time. The Odyssey in fact bases on the fact that time almost seemed to have stopped and in fact, the time span that Odysseus spent travelling at sea does not match with the actual time that was passing on land in Ithaca. On the other hand we perceive that time is passing by rather slowly for Penelope who patiently raised her son and safeguarded Ithaca while waiting Odysseus.
What the concept of time in the Mediterranean proves is that the various
images that one finds both in writing and in new popular culture are constantly fed to our conception of the region and through time these various concepts fonn an imaginary. In many cases, when we look at popular culture we find elements that 74 we can reconnect to literature. This proves that the means by which an imaginary is constrncted is based on different elements but usually one may find recmTing elements both in popular culture and literature. In the concept of time we also find a common way of seeing life itself. Time in the Mediterranean seems to be stuck therefore we may argue that literature and popular culture have contributed to the fonnation of our ideas about life per se, whilst obviously not denying that everyday life was of constant inspiration to literature and culture. The way in which both popular culture and everyday life intersect, connect and find common points is something of fundamental importance in the study of the Mediterranean imaginary, as it gives different points of view and visions of the subject and therefore creates an imaginary that manages in a subtle way to unite what seems so distant. Jean-Claude Izzo, Vincenzo Consolo and many other authors, as well as different ‘texts’ of popular culture, create an ethos about the Mediterranean that aims to join what appears separate. The fact that nowadays the Mediterranean is still present in popular culture, as in the case of the previously mentioned film shown by France 2, proves that discourse about the region and the Mediterranean imaginary are still alive and they have a presence in the mind of the receiver.
The imaginary of the Mediterranean harbour is also constrncted by the
way it is advertised. A short, recent videob1 advertising the Maltese harbour
repeatedly used the word ‘Mediterranean’ to highlight the connection between
67 Valletta Waterfront, Valletta Cruise Port Malta- the door to the Mediterranean, (uploaded February, 2012) www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMThbEG95WA (accessed May, 2014)
75
Europe and Africa. The way in which the harbour is projected in the French
movie shows a deep connection to the historical and cultural heritage of the
country but it also aims to show how historically and culturally varied the country is. The advertisement’s aim was to create a sense of uniqueness whilst focusing on the broader vision of the Mediterranean as a whole. On the one hand it focuses on the fact that Malta is part of the European Union, therefore boasting high standards of security and maritime services, and on the other hand it promotes the various hist01 ical influences on Malta and its Grand Harbour and portrays it as the gateway both to the northern and to the southern shore. Being an island in the Mediterranean gave Malta the possibility to create its uniqueness, but also to affiliate itself to both Europe and Africa. In this sense, the sea serves as a unifying factor but at the same time it was always able to maintain the individuality of each place. The discourse about the Mediterranean is rendered possible thanks to the various factors that inhabit the region – factors that may differ from one shore to another, thus making the region a more interesting one to study.
4.3 Conclusion The discourse about the Mediterranean has always revolved around the projection of different images that supposedly recall a common feeling and common grounds. The Mediterranean is a region that is in essence a combination of a myriad of cultures; this factor is very relevant in the discourse on the region 76 as the attempt to unite the region in one cultural sphere is somehow a failed attempt. It is relevant to mention that in the production of literature and culture, these different expressions especially concerning the Mediterranean have produced a knit of sensations and feelings that are now mostly recognized as being ‘Mediterranean’. The harbour in this case has always been the locus of the Mediterranean imaginary because sea and land meet in the harbour, and therefore many cultures meet and interact in the harbours.
Harbours are places that live an ‘in between’ life but that still manage to
mingle the differences in a subtle way that feels almost nonnal and natural. The
harbour has inspired many authors as it has built a sense of awaiting and hope in the person. The Mediterranean port seems to suggest that everything is possible, and that imageries and ideas can unfold in the same harbour.
77
5 Conclusion
The Mediterranean city is a place where two myths come together: the
myth of the city and the myth of the Mediterranean. Both myths have developed
independently because both managed to create symbols and connotations that
have been able to survive till today. The myth of the city in relation to the myth of
the Mediterranean has been for a long time regarded independently and therefore it created a succession of elements that was able to reside in the same place but was in essence two different elements. 68
From antiquity, the ‘city’ has been seen as a symbol of social order – as a
place where reason and civilization reign in contrast with the ignorance of the
outskirts. The concept of a ‘city’ that is able to unify ideals and control society by
maintaining high levels of education and increasing cultural standards has
developed a division between the rural areas and the city itself. In conjunction
with the harbour, the concept of a civilized ‘city’ mingles with the idea of a
cultural mixture that is able to absorb what the sea has to offer.
In the Mediterranean port cities, the cultural emancipation and the centre
of trade and business in a way managed to intenningle with the idea of ‘squalor’,
most of the time being associated to the harbour. Nevertheless, in the
68 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
78
Mediterranean harbour cities, the idea of cultural richness and emancipation was a concept that found concretization in the idealization of the ‘city’ itself by its
inhabitants. The ‘city’ as much as the Mediterranean itself found deep resonance
with the growth of literature. In the case of the ‘city’, various treaties and
literature expedients that promoted it as a centre of cultural riclmess and
architectural rigor helped the ‘city’ itself to find a place in the mind of the person
approaching it. The obvious consequence of this new fonnation of cities as a
symbol of 1igor and proliferation was that a great number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities. The myth of the harbour cities as being the centre of business and a locus of culture went on cultivating with the accounts about these cities written by various authors. They managed to give life to a succession of images that are now imprints of harbour cities throughout the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean appears unified in anthropological69 discourse in which
assumptions are made about the way ‘Mediterraneaninsm’ is constituted and the
‘Mediterranean way of life’. A group of cultural anthropologists aimed to view
the Mediterranean as a whole for the purpose of identifying elements that
managed to tie the region and gave meaning to the unification itself. On the one
hand they managed to give international relevance to studies about the region
because they constructed what they regarded as common Mediterranean attributes.
On the other hand they were constructing a discourse that said more about their
own vision than about a region that is varied in its essence. In a way they also
69 Georges Duby Gli ideali de! Mediterraneo (Mesogea 2000) pp.83-100
79 rendered the region ‘exotic’. The way in which anthropology managed to create an idea about the Mediterranean is interesting even though a person living in the region might argue that the picture given is incorrect. In this sense the imaginary of the Mediterranean projected by literature does not aspire to give a detailed account of life in the region but rather to actually transmit the feelings and passions that the region has. In this sense, literature was able to transfonn a passion and a detailed account of one’s own perspective about the region into an imaginary that is in its turn able to remain imprinted in the person’s conception of the Mediterranean. Literature and art in the Mediterranean had the ability to prove that there are common feelings in the region but they are distinguishable in their very essence and the harbour with its strategic position was able to give inspiration to the artist that approached it. The creation of an imaginary about the Mediterranean goes beyond the very need of knowing and apprehending facts that may be or may not be common to the whole region. In this sense, the artistic expedients and the literal world managed to relate to the reader and the spectator in a very special way by creating powerful images that construct society.
5.1 The ‘imaginary’ of the Mediterranean
One important definition of the ‘imaginary’ is given by Castoriadis in his
The Imaginary Institution of Society 70 in which he states that the human being
cannot exist without the collective and that the collective is fonned by different
7° Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth(University of Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
80
elements. One of the elements that is of great importance in the fonnation of the
collective is the symbol. The symbol or the collection of symbols is fonned from
reality and from an imaginary. In the composition of the imaginary, whatever
stems from reality and whatever stems from fiction remains in essence a question which is not resolved or which probably does not intend to be resolved. Therefore, the imaginary explained by Castoriadis gives a social meaning to certain questions that are fundamental in the complexity of reality. For example, the symbol of God was created for various reasons but its creation per se does not distinguish between elements that are true in its essence and elements that are imagined. The example given by Castoriadis on the symbol of God leads us to the conception of the Mediterranean region as a region fonned in its imaginary by reality and myth which intertwine and are not distinguishable. The Mediterranean created by the various authors and artists mentioned reinforces the imaginary that has at its basis the aim of giving a picture of the region which is not far from reality but on the other hand which is not that structured. Therefore we can argue that the difference between an anthropologist’s approach to the region and an artist’s approach is based on the difference in their point of focus. This statement one does not deny the importance of the anthropologist’s approach to the region where in fact social
structure appears and thus one can easily understand the way by which society is fonned. To fuiiher the study and understand it in its complexity one cannot deny the importance of literature and culture in the creation of an imaginary.
Castoriadis 71 states that society shares a number of undeniable truths that are
71 Kostantino Kavoulakas Cornelius Castoriadis on social imaginaiy and truth (University of 81
accepted by everyone. By analyzing the imaginary one manages to go beyond
these undeniable truths and thus manages to extend the life of the imaginary itself.
Therefore, if the Mediterranean exists, it is because it managed to create a number of myths and symbols able to renew themselves. The impo1iance of the imaginary for the region itself is based on the fruits that it gives. The Mediterranean that is being mentioned in the various books and poems is supported by the emotions and passions of each and every author. If the author is not moved by passion for the region it would be difficult to create an imaginary. The Mediterranean region is still present in our mind thanks to the imaginary created by the various authors and thinkers.
The choice of the harbour as the locus of a Mediterranean imaginary
comes almost naturally as the harbours facing the Mediterranean Sea have a great impact on culture in the Mediterranean and the threshold between sea and land is on the one hand the very basis of the Mediterranean life. The harbour and the city as two separate and yet same elements intertwine and are able to create rich and variegated cultures, yet they were also the first spectators of conflicts and wars.
From this point of view, it is undeniable that the harbour in the Mediterranean
holds a special place for the author and may be seen by many authors and thinkers as a place of inspiration where ideas concretize and where the emotions, thoughts and ideas brought by the voyage at sea are still very present in the memory.
Crete, September 2000) pp.202-213
82
Through the image of the harbour we come across the image of the sailor
who to many authors has been a point of reflection for the discourse on the
Mediterranean and has helped the connection between the real, almost “filthy” life of the harbor, and the ideas and concepts that fonn in the city. The various authors that integrated the image of the sailor to the idea of the harbour in the
Mediterranean were able to reinforce the Mediterranean imaginary by joining
different images and by giving them life and purpose in a way that goes beyond
the truth. The sailor in Jean-Claude Izzo’ s imaginary has a deep and developed
curiosity and a great knowledge of The Odyssey. While it is not be a surprise that
a sailor has a passion for literature, the point that Jean-Claude Izzo makes is that
Homer’s Mediterranean has definitely changed, yet it is still alive in the heart of
the ones that live the region in all its essence. Therefore, the sailor who is an
everyday image and thus is able to relate to a greater audience acquires almost
different attributes that do not match reality, but that are in essence part of a
shared Mediterranean imaginary.
The way in which authors and thinkers contribute to the fonnation of the
Mediterranean has been the principal focus of this dissertation. The pattern
created by art and literature all over the Mediterranean highlights the differences in the region but it also portrays the similarities that are able to give birth to a unified Mediterranean. As discussed throughout, the process of finding
similarities and the fonnation of an imaginary that is able to constitute the
83
Mediterranean was not a smooth one. The Mediterranean does not in fact appear
as a place that has a lot of common features. Even though politically and
sometimes socially it has been portrayed as a unified region, the unifying factors
are few. Literature does not aim to give a picture of the Mediterranean as one but
aims rather to give various personal and interpersonal interpretations of the region to fonn an imaginary able to be transported and reinterpreted in different
circumstances. It is important to understand that the word ‘imaginary’ does not
aim to conduct a political or social inquiry about the region and that the word in
itself actually aims to understand the underlying concept of the Mediterranean. It does not aim to state facts about the region but rather to give an account that is
able to connect the historical roots of the region to personal experience.
5.2 The Mediterranean ‘Imaginary’ Beyond the Harbour
Although the harbour was my main focus in identifying the Mediterranean
imaginary, it is definitely not the only point in the Mediterranean that could be
taken into account when studying its imaginary. Other aspects of the
Mediterranean could be of great relevance when expanding the various images of the region. One important aspect in all the literature expedients taken into account was the relationship of every author with their nation and their complex identity.
Therefore, in relation to the study conducted, it would be of great interest to expand the notion of ‘nationhood’ and the fonnation of various and complex
84
identities created in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean nowadays is seen as a region where ‘nationhood’ and identity are created through a complex of knits and relations. The latest ‘citizenship’ programs in all of the northern Mediterranean countries show how the borders and the concept of ‘nationhood’ are deeply changing, most probably opening to further possibilities that range from cultural enrichment to economic advance. When thinking about the Mediterranean JeanClaude Izzo emphasized the fact that he felt that part of himself resided in every harbour and his ‘identity’ was not limited to one place. He makes us realize that the Mediterranean existed before the creation of ‘nations’ and so, each Mediterranean person feels like he can relate to more than one country and more than one culture. The harbour has been the first impact with a deep association to the region, and the person approaching a Mediterranean harbour automatically abandons his roots and is able to relate to what the harbour has to offer. In this sense we have seen how the harbour was vital to the creation of a powerful imaginary. The question of identity and complex relations in the Mediterranean would be a next step in analysing the complexity of the region. The Mediterranean harbour teaches us that all Mediterranean people are prone to the ‘other’ and are open to various cultures, including the exposure to a number of languages and the creation of a lingua .fi’anca to facilitate communication. Therefore, with this exposure promoted by the harbour, the Mediterranean created various identities that sometimes are not distinguishable.
85
Jean-Claude Izzo felt he could relate to almost every country in the
Mediterranean and that part of him resided in every harbour. Nevertheless, he
always saw Marseille as a point of reference and as an anchorage point where his thoughts concretized. Contrarily, the difficult relation of Vincenzo Consolo with the Italian peninsula makes the issue of complex identitites particularly relevant. For a number of years, Consolo worked in northern Italy where he felt like a stranger in his own country. However, with the difference of enviromnent and in a way, a dissimilarity of culture, he was able to contemplate the meaning of the Mediterranean and his native ‘country’, Sicily. The question of a possible or
rather an impossible identity in the Mediterranean does not enrich or denigrate the concept of an ‘imaginary’ but rather enables the person studying the region to understand certain dynamics and the way in which authors and thinkers approach the region. It is rather difficult to paint a clear picture of the Mediterranean through understanding the complexity of ‘identity’, though it would be of great interest to find the way in which each and every Mediterranean person manages to relate to the concept of identity, which is an integral part of his or her social accomplishment. Society instils a deep sense of fulfilment and accomplishment in a person who is able to fully relate to their country of origin, and as Amin Maalouf states in In the Nmne of Identity, 72 identity is something that most of the time may lead to war between countries, and so it is undeniable that it plays a fundamental role in the way we view things.
72 Maalouf Amin, In the name of Identity: violence and the need to belong (Penguin books, 2000)
86
Amin Maalouf is an author of mixed origins. He is Lebanese but has lived
most of his life in France and when asked which of the two countries is his ‘real’
country, he found it difficult to answer as he states that both countries are part of
his identity. Thus identity for Amin Maalouf is something very personal. A person
living in France fonn a number of years has the ability to emich his previous
identity, therefore acquires an added identity to the previous one. The same person cannot deny the previous identity, yet he cannot deny that the present identity plays an important role in his personal fonnation. The Mediterranean as a region has always promoted the mixture of cultures and the voyage itself, therefore contributing to the fonnation of complex and variegated identities. Nowadays, we manage to relate both to a Greek and Roman descent, therefore geographically and historically the Mediterranean has been united in ideas and concepts that are now far from each other but yet undeniable.
The same geography and architectural heritage left by the Greeks and
Romans is still visible in most of the Mediterranean cities and harbours. This is
evident in the lighthouses that were for most of the time a symbol of greatness and architectural splendour, and we encountered a succession of ideas and cultures that mingled with the necessity of the lighthouse. Therefore the lighthouse that was on the one hand a powerful expression of artistic and cultural splendour, managed to create ideas and thoughts that stemmed from the actual need of ‘light’ and guidance. All these elements intertwine in the Mediterranean, rendering the 
87
concept of identity somewhat a complex one. Each person has an identity as
explained by Tarek Abdul Razek in his study about the Mediterranean identity:
‘Each one of us is the depositary of a dual legacy: the first is vertical,
coming from our ancestors, the traditions of our people and religious
c01mnunities; the other is horizontal and derives from our era and
contemporaries. Vertical identity is connected to memory and the past;
it is limited to a given territory within a given area. It usually
corresponds to national identity, the outcome of cultural policy
choices. Instead, horizontal identity extends towards the future,
though it remains open to the contemporary, reaching beyond national
borders, within a social context, in a postmodern approach. Thus,
horizontal identity is a project, a project for the future and not merely
a legacy of the past.’ 73
In relation to the Mediterranean, the horizontal and vertical identity may
be tied to the deep varied history that the Mediterranean holds. If Mediterranean
history is based on the interaction between people and cultures, then each and
everyone’s identity cannot just be based on the value of the nation as it is now.
The horizontal identity that leaves a door open to the future is in this sense very
important and gives substance to the discourse of a Mediterranean imaginary,
73 Abdul Razek ‘Common Mediterranean identity’ The Euro-Mediterranean student research multi-conference EMUNI RES (2009) pp.1-8
88
being the main contributor to the future of the Mediterranean. The imaginary that is the bringing together of both the vertical and horizontal identities manages to give hope to future discourse about the region. The imaginary does not deny the complexity of a possible Mediterranean identity, but merely shows a past where ideas flourished and have now become an integral paii of our own identity. It also proves that the future of a region is not solely made up of geographical, political and social features but is also made of different elements that manage to inte1iwine fanning a knit of images able to reside in the mind of every reader, artist and philosopher.
A search for a common identity is surely not the path to be taken in
understanding the relations in the Mediterranean because a common identity
usually instituted by the idea of a nation instills in the person a set of common
goals and ideals. In the case of the Mediterranean, the various conflicts and wars
show that there is no co1mnon identity tying the region. Therefore, it is quite
difficult to analyze a common identity and it should not be the purpose of a study
itself. It is interesting, however, to delve in the way authors and thinkers that
contributed to the fonnation of an imaginary in the Mediterranean deal with their personal identity, whether it is problematic for a great number of authors or whether authors find that their identity is not limited to their ‘national identity’.
All these factors could be of great interest to the person studying the region in the
sense that if each author writing about the Mediterranean finds the impulse to
write about the region, then he must feel a sense of association to the region,
89 irrespective of his roots or his identity, or the historical elements that he finds
residing in all the Mediterranean. This ‘affiliation’ has an element of identity that
I find interesting in the discourse about the Mediterranean. Jean-Claude Izzo in
his Les Marins Perdus states that every person travelling in the Mediterranean
needs to have a personal reason for it, and this personal reason resides mostly in
the search for an identity. One of the characters in Jean-Claude Izzo’s Les Marins
Perdus was in constant search of an identity; a personal one that could tie him
psychologically and emotionally to a harbour or to a land. The Mediterranean, as
a region, was the place where he could c01mnent, argue and question his own
identity. Whether the search actually resulted in finding his identity is not the
actual point of the novel but the focal point is that the constant search for an
‘affiliation’ and an anchorage point brought out a rich imaginary that is able to be
transported through time.
The Mediterranean imaginary constructed by the various authors and
thinkers created a vision of various concepts such as the sailor, the metaphor of
the harbour, and the thresholds that hold both a geographical and metaphorical
meaning. The imaginary of the region is meant to go beyond the initial sociopolitical meanings that the media tries to portray. The Mediterranean for
anthropologists, authors, politicians and the Mediterranean people themselves has in essence a different meaning for each person, and therefore by analyzing the narration and images about the region, it is possible to understand the relationship between each component of the Mediterranean society to society itself.
90
The aim of analyzing the imaginary in the Mediterranean through the help
of the harbour as a conceptual and geographical area was to focus on the way in
which literature and culture through the help of metaphors and the personal
encounter with the region, manages to leave an imprint on the imaginary of the
region. The region is not only a place where these figures meet, intertwine and are reinvented but it is also a place where politics should be discussed considering the deep historical and geographical ties as well as a place where issues such as ‘migration’ should be viewed with the history of the region in mind. The importance of the Mediterranean does not lie in the accomplishment of a common identity but in realizing that each and every complex identity that resides in and writes about the Mediterranean can contribute to the fonnation of the ‘imaginary’ to which everyone can relate – images and figures with which each Mediterranean person, with their diverse identities, can identify. The imaginary is the result of images, narratives and depictions that from a personal meaning and manage to acquire a deeper and more global meaning. The Mediterranean people would not feel that these common ideas and values are in any way limiting their freedom or restricting their identity, but on the contrary, feel that it is enriching to their personalized and contradictory identity.
91
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